Methods and systems for coherent imaging and feedback control for modification of materials via imaging a feedstock supply stream interferometrically

ABSTRACT

Methods and systems are provided for using optical interferometry in the context of material modification processes such as surgical laser, sintering, and welding applications. An imaging optical source that produces imaging light. A feedback controller controls at least one processing parameter of the material modification process based on an interferometry output generated using the imaging light. A method of processing interferograms is provided based on homodyne filtering. A method of generating a record of a material modification process using an interferometry output is provided.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 17/154,096,filed Jan. 21, 2021, which is a continuation of application Ser. No.16/007,338, filed Jun. 13, 2018, now U.S. Publication No. 2018-0297117,which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 15/408,690, filed Jan.18, 2017, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,124,410 issued Nov. 13, 2018, whichclaims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/280,499, filedJan. 19, 2016 and is a continuation in part of application Ser. No.15/250,086, filed Aug. 29, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,022,818 issuedJul. 17, 2018, which is a continuation of application Ser. No.14/467,131, filed Aug. 25, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,457,428 issued Oct.4, 2016, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 13/245,334,filed Sep. 26, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,822,875 issued Sep. 2, 2014,which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/435,076,filed Jan. 21, 2011 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/386,496,filed Sep. 25, 2010, all hereby incorporated herein by reference intheir entirety.

FIELD

The application relates to coherent imaging, and to optical modificationor measurement of materials, such as through the use of lasers.

BACKGROUND

Lasers are known to be important tools for processing a wide range ofmaterials. Example processes include welding, drilling, cutting,routing, perforating, sintering and surface treatment. Materials caninclude metals, semiconductors, dielectrics, polymers, as well as hardand soft biological tissue. By focusing a beam, it can be possible toachieve improved precision of the laser's action in a directiontransverse to the beam axis. However, localizing the laser's action inthe axial direction of the beam can be difficult.

Common to many laser processes, are metrology techniques to guide aprocessing system and obtain quality assurance data before, duringand/or after the laser action. Aspects of the laser interaction andpractical limitations can interfere with the standard techniques. Someexamples of such aspects include plasma generation/electricalinterference, high aspect ratio holes, blinding by the processing laser,fast moving material, unpredictable geometries, material relaxation andpotential damage to the metrology instrumentation by the processinglaser.

Control of laser cut depth is a major enabler for the use of lasers in avariety of microsurgeries. In particular, there exists an enormousdemand for spinal surgeries (one third of neurosurgery cases in somehospitals). Current mechanical tools are archaic and difficult to usesafely and efficiently except by experienced surgeons. It would bedesirable to use lasers because of their high transverse control, notool wear and non-contact operation (infection control). There are otherbenefits from laser use such as flexible coagulation control and anatural aseptic effect. However, lasers have very poor axial control(meaning, the beam continues in the axial direction). This means that ifthe point of perforation is not controlled with extreme precision,unintended injury to surrounding soft tissue is almost certain. Thus,the use of lasers has so far been precluded in a vast number of cases.

Current laser systems are mainly used on soft tissue and rely on anassumption of constant material removed for a given amount of exposure.However, this assumption is not always a good one and furthermore, oneoften does not know exactly how much tissue needs to be removed apriori. Precision cutting or ablation at interfaces of tissue withvastly different optical, mechanical, and thermal properties is ofparticular interest to neurological, orthopedic, ear-nose-throat, andlaparoscopic surgeons. Unlike corneal laser surgery, these surgicalspecialties are mainly concerned with non-transparent, optically turbidtissue types with heterogeneous tissue properties on the microscopicscale, where detailed and precise a priori opto-thermal characterizationis not feasible. The resultant non-deterministic tissue cutting/ablationprocess greatly hinders the use of lasers during such surgeries. Forexample, several authors have recently highlighted that practical laserosteotomy (surgical procedure to cut bone) is limited by a lack of laserdepth control. The potential benefit of precise removal of tissue mayprovide significant clinical impact in this and other areas of surgicaloncology and implantation.

In industrial applications, laser processing has the advantage that asingle laser can be used to clean, weld and/or machine differentmaterials without mechanical adjustment or changing chemical treatments.Although laser ablation of heterogeneous or multi-layered samples hasbeen accomplished, these processes require tremendous amounts ofdevelopment and rely on uniform sample characteristics or models withlimited applicability and varied success. Laser welding and cleaning,too, typically require extensive multi-parameter optimization. Thisproblem of achieving a specific set of processing objectives (forexample feature aspect ratio, heat affected zone, etc.) within theavailable parameter space (encompassing feed rate, pulse energy, pulseduration, wavelength, assist gas, spot size and focal position) iscompounded by characteristics of the material (for example melt andablation threshold and polymer molecular weight). Accordingly,industrial laser process development requires significant time andfinancial investment, and may demand fine tolerance feedstock to ensurereliability. Laser process monitoring and control of welding anddrilling has used sensors to measure the metal temperature, reflectivityand plasma temperature near the area being processed. These forms ofmetrology do not provide an accurate measurement of laser beampenetration depth.

Laser welding is an industrial process that is particularly well suitedto automated and high volume manufacturing. The diverse applications forlaser welding have in common a process of controlled heating by a laserto create a phase change localized to the bond region. Controlling thisphase change region (PCR) is important to control the geometry andquality of the weld and the overall productivity of the welding system.The high spatial coherence of laser light allows superb transversecontrol of the welding energy. Axial control (depth of the PCR) andsubsequent thermal diffusion are problematic in thick materials. Inthese applications, the depth of the PCR is extended deep into thematerial (e.g., 50 micrometers and deeper) using a technique widelyknown as “keyhole welding”. Here, the beam intensity is sufficient tomelt the surface to open a small vapor channel (also known as a“capillary” or “the keyhole”) which allows the optical beam to penetratedeep into the material. Depending on the specific application, thekeyhole is narrow (e.g., <mm) but several millimetres deep and sustainedwith the application of as much as ˜10⁵ W of optical power. As a result,the light-matter interaction region inside the PCR can be turbulent,unstable and highly stochastic. Unfortunately, instability of keyholeformation can lead to internal voids and high weld porosity resulting inweld failure, with potential catastrophic consequences. Weld qualityverification is usually required, often using expensive ex situ anddestructive testing. Welding imaging solutions are offered but arelimited in their capabilities and usually monitor regions either beforeor after of the PCR, to track the weld joint, or record the top surfaceof the cooled weld joint.

SUMMARY

According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided an apparatuscomprising: a material processing beam source that produces a materialprocessing beam that is applied to a sample location in a materialmodification process; an imaging optical source that produces imaginglight; an optical interferometer that produces an interferometry outputusing at least a component of the imaging light that is delivered to thesample, the interferometry output based on at least one optical pathlength to the sample compared to another optical path length; and afeedback controller that controls at least one processing parameter ofthe material modification process based on the interferometry output.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided feedbackcontrol apparatus for use with a material processing system thatimplements a material modification process, the material processingsystem having an optical access port, the apparatus comprising: animaging optical source that produces imaging light; an input-output portthat outputs a first component of the imaging light to the opticalaccess port of the material processing system and that receives areflection component of the imaging light in return; an optical combinerthat combines the reflection component and another component of theimaging light to produce an interferometry output, the interferometryoutput based on a path length taken by the first component and thereflection component compared to a path length taken by the anothercomponent of the imaging light; a feedback controller that generates atleast one signal that influences at least one processing parameter ofthe material modification process based on the interferometry output.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller is further configured todetermine if the interferometry output initially comprises substantiallyonly light reflected along a reference path, after which theinterferometry output is based on the path length of a sample pathcompared to the path length of the reference path.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller determines when or if theinterferometry output makes a transition from comprising substantiallyonly light reflected along a reference path to being based on the pathlength of the sample path compared to the path length of the referencepath; and the feedback controller generates at least one signal thatinfluences at least one processing parameter of the materialmodification process based on the interferometry output taking intoaccount the transition.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller processes multipleinstances of the interferometry output to identify a change in theinterferometry output in respect of a material being processed, andwherein feedback control is a function of such change.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller provides an indication of amodification/sample motion “speed” or another rate of change, based onthe change in the interferometry output.

In some embodiments, the feedback processor further generates anindication of optical index of a material based on the interferometryoutput.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises: a computerreadable medium; and a record generator that generates a record of thematerial modification process based on the interferometry output at aplurality of times and stores the record on the computer readablemedium.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller is a real-time controllerthat controls the at least one processing parameter of the materialmodification process during said process.

In some embodiments, the material modification processing beam source isa solid state, fiber or gas laser.

In some embodiments, the material processing beam source is at least oneof an ion beam and an electron beam.

In some embodiments, the interferometer comprises: a combiner; areference arm, a first component of the imaging light being applied toan input of the reference arm resulting in an output signal of thereference arm, the reference arm having said another optical pathlength; and a sample arm, a second component of the imaging light beingapplied to the sample arm resulting in an output signal of the samplearm, at least a component of the output signal of the sample armincluding reflections of the component of the imaging light from asample location, the sample arm having said at least one optical pathlength; wherein the combiner combines the output signal of the referencearm and the output signal of the sample arm to produce a combined signalas said interferometry output; the apparatus further comprising a signaldetector configured to produce a first interferogram from theinterferometry output.

In some embodiments, the apparatus comprises at least one of: multiplesample arms, a respective interferogram being generated for each samplearm, reference arm combination; multiple reference arms, a respectiveinterferogram being generated for each sample arm, reference armcombination; and multiple reference arms and multiple sample arms, arespective interferogram being generated for each sample arm, referencearm combination.

In some embodiments, the interferometer comprises: at least one splitterand/or optical circulator; and at least one sample arm after thesplitter and/or optical circulator, the imaging signal being applied tothe sample arm resulting in an output signal of the sample arm, at leasta component of the output signal of the sample arm including reflectionsof the component of the imaging signal from at least two locations inthe sample arm and/or the material being processed, the sample armhaving said at least one optical path length and said another opticalpath length; wherein the splitter and/or optical circulator receives theoutput signal from the sample arm and directs it towards a detector; theapparatus further comprising a signal detector configured to produce aninterferogram from the interferometry output.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises: an interferogramprocessor that performs an analysis based on the interferometry outputto produce a depth measurement reflecting how deep the materialprocessing beam has penetrated at the sample location.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller performs an analysis basedon the interferometry output and generates feedback control thatcontrols depth cutting relative to an interface that is closest to thecutting laser.

In some embodiments, feedback controller performs an analysis based onthe interferometry output and generates feedback control that controlsdepth cutting relative to an interface that is beyond the current cutdepth.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller controls at least oneprocessing parameter of the material modification process based on thedepth measurement.

In some embodiments, the at least one processing parameter of thematerial modification process controlled by the feedback controllercomprises at least one of: on/off state of the material processing beam;average power of the material processing beam; pulse duration of thematerial processing beam; peak intensity of the material processingbeam; density of the material processing beam; energy of the materialprocessing beam; particle species of the material processing beam;wavelength of the material processing beam; pulse repetition rate of thematerial processing beam; pulse energy of the material processing beam;pulse shape of the material processing beam scan speed of the materialprocessing beam; focal diameter of the material processing beam; focalposition of the material processing beam; spatial pattern of thematerial processing beam on the sample; material feed rate; coolingmedia flow rate; cover/assist gas flow rate; cover/assist gas pressure;cover/assist gas blend; arc welding process parameters (such as voltage,current and wire feed rate); and additive material feed rate.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller controls at least oneprocessing parameter of the material modification process based on thedepth measurement by controlling the material processing beam to be offwhen the depth measurement indicates a specified depth.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises: an interferogramprocessor that performs an analysis based on the interferometry outputto produce an indication of at least one of: when the materialmodification source beam has penetrated to a specified depth; proximityof the region of the material currently being modified to other regionsof the material; remaining amount of material to be penetrated; totaldepth that has been modified; absolute final depth reached; fluctuationsof depth; speed of depth change; and remaining distance to a subsurfaceinterface.

In some embodiments, the apparatus is further configured to sense atleast one change at a subsurface level based on the interferometryoutput.

In some embodiments, the at least one change sensed at a subsurfacelevel comprises at least one of: temperature changes, state changes,fluid flow, and pressure waves.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller controls at least onematerial modification parameter based on change sensed at the subsurfacelevel.

In some embodiments, a change at the subsurface level is sensed byobserving changes in a speckle pattern.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller controls the materialprocessing beam source to turn off the material processing beam based onindication from the interferogram processor.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller controls the materialprocessing beam source to turn on the material processing beam based onindication from the interferogram processor.

In some embodiments, the apparatus comprises: a memory for storing apre-calculated synthesized interferogram for a target result; a signaldetector that produces a measured interferogram from the interferometryoutput; and an interferogram processor that processes the measuredinterferogram together with the pre-calculated synthesized interferogramto produce a correlation result; wherein the feedback controllercontrols at least one processing parameter of the material modificationprocess based on the correlation result.

In some embodiments, the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram for atarget result is an estimate of what is expected when reflections returnfrom a specified depth; and the interferogram processor produces thecorrelation result by multiplying the measured interferogram by thepre-calculated interferogram on a per detected element basis and thensumming.

In some embodiments, at least one of the pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram and the measured interferogram is shaped to compensate forat least one of: spectrometer alignment; spectrometer grating anglenonlinearity; imaging distortion from imaging optics in thespectrometer; wavelength to wave number/frequency re-sampling; finitesize of detector active area; spectral envelope shape; dispersionmismatch; and another non-ideality contained in the interferogram thatdegrades image quality.

In some embodiments, the apparatus is further configured to process thecorrelation result to identify approximately when the volume modified bythe material processing beam has reached the specified depth.

In some embodiments, the apparatus is further configured to identifyapproximately when the specified depth has been reached from when thecorrelation result meets a threshold.

In some embodiments, the at least one path length is to a firstreflector at the sample location and the another path length is to asecond reflector at the sample location.

In some embodiments, the at least one path length is at least two pathlengths to respective reflectors at the sample location, and the anotherpath length is along a reference arm.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises: an interferogramsynthesizer that synthesizes the pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram.

According to still another aspect of the invention, there is provided anapparatus for producing and processing an interferometry output, theapparatus comprising: a memory that stores a pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram for a target result; an interferometer for producing aninterferometry output; a signal detector that produces a measuredinterferogram from the interferometry output; an interferogram processorthat processes the measured interferogram together with thepre-calculated expected interferogram to produce a correlation result;and a thresholder configured to determine when the result meets athreshold.

In some embodiments, for each of a plurality of target results, thememory stores a respective pre-calculated synthesized interferogram; theinterferogram processor processes the measured interferogram togetherwith each pre-calculated synthesized interferogram to produce arespective correlation result; and the thresholder determines when eachcorrelation result meets a respective threshold.

In some embodiments, the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram is aninterferogram that is an estimate of what is expected when the targetresult is achieved by a material modification beam at a sample location;the measured interferogram is in respect of a sample location; and theinterferogram processor produces the correlation result by multiplyingthe measured interferogram by the pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram on a per detector element basis and then summing.

In some embodiments, at least one of the pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram and the measured interferogram is shaped to compensate forat least one of: spectrometer alignment; spectrometer grating anglenonlinearity; imaging distortion from imaging optics in thespectrometer; wavelength to wave number/frequency re-sampling; finitesize of active area of detector; spectral envelope shape; dispersionmismatch; and another non-ideality contained in the interferogram thatdegrades image quality.

In some embodiments, the target result is an estimate of what isexpected when reflections return from a specified depth.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises: a feedbackcontroller that controls a material modification beam source to turn offthe material modification beam when the correlation result meets athreshold.

In some embodiments, he apparatus further comprises: a feedbackcontroller that controls at least one processing parameter of a materialmodification process when the correlation result meets a threshold.

In some embodiments, the at least one processing parameter comprises atleast one of: on/off state of the material processing beam; averagepower of the material processing beam; pulse duration of the materialprocessing beam; peak intensity of the material processing beam; densityof the material processing beam; energy of the material processing beam;particle species of the material processing beam; wavelength of thematerial processing beam; pulse repetition rate of the materialprocessing beam; pulse energy of the material processing beam; pulseshape of the material processing beam scan speed of the materialprocessing beam; focal diameter of the material processing beam; focalposition of the material processing beam; spatial pattern of thematerial processing beam on the sample; material feed rate; coolingmedia flow rate; cover/assist gas flow rate; cover/assist gas pressure;cover/assist gas blend; arc welding process parameters (such as voltage,current and wire feed rate); and additive material feed rate.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises: a feedbackcontroller that controls a material modification beam source to turn onthe material modification beam when the correlation result meets athreshold.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises: an interferogramsynthesizer that synthesizes the pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram.

According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is provided anapparatus that generates a record of a material modification process,the apparatus comprising: a material processing beam source thatproduces a material processing beam that is applied to a sample locationin the material modification process, wherein the material modificationprocess is a welding process; an imaging optical source that producesimaging light; an optical interferometer that produces an interferometryoutput using at least a component of the imaging light that is deliveredto the sample, the interferometry output based on at least one opticalpath length to the sample compared to another optical path length; and arecord generator that generates a record of the material modificationprocess based on the interferometry output at a plurality of times.

In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises: a computerreadable storage medium; wherein the record generator stores the recordon the compute readable storage medium.

In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce the materialprocessing beam and the imaging light substantially co-axially whendelivered to the sample.

According to yet a further aspect of the invention, there is provided anapparatus that generates a record of a material modification process,the apparatus comprising: a material processing beam source thatproduces a material processing beam that is applied to a sample locationin the material modification process, wherein the material modificationprocess is a medical process employing a laser beam as the materialprocessing beam; an imaging optical source that produces imaging light;an optical interferometer that produces an interferometry output usingat least a component of the imaging light that is delivered to thesample, the interferometry output based on at least one optical pathlength to the sample compared to another optical path length; and arecord generator that generates a record of the material modificationprocess based on the interferometry output at a plurality of times.

According to yet a further aspect of the invention, there is provided amethod for controlling at least one processing parameter of a materialmodification process, the method comprising: generating imaging lightwith an imaging optical source; producing an interferometry output usingat least a component of the imaging light that is delivered to a sample,the interferometry output based on at least one optical path length tothe sample compared to another optical path length; and automaticallycontrolling at least one processing parameter of a material modificationprocess based on the interferometry output.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: applying a materialprocessing beam to the sample location in the material modificationprocess.

In some embodiments, the material modification beam is a drilling laser;automatically controlling comprises controlling a perforation by thematerial modification beam such that immediately after perforation isdetected, or after a selected overdrilling period after perforation isdetected, the drilling laser is controlled to stop.

In some embodiments, applying a material processing beam comprisesfabricating cooling holes in gas turbines.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: determining if theinterferometry output initially comprises substantially only lightreflected along a reference path, after which the interferometry outputis based on the path length of a sample path compared to the path lengthof the reference path.

In some embodiments, determining when or if the interferometry outputmakes a transition from comprising substantially only light reflectedalong a reference path to being based on the path length of the samplepath compared to the path length of the reference path; and generatingfeedback to influence influences at least one processing parameter ofthe material modification process based on the interferometry outputtaking into account the transition.

In some embodiments, the method comprises: processing multiple instancesof the interferometry output to identify a change in the interferometryoutput in respect of a material being processed, and wherein feedbackcontrol is a function of such change.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: generating anindication of a modification/sample motion “speed” or another rate ofchange, based on the change in the interferometry output.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: generating anindication of optical index of a material based on the interferometryoutput.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: generating a recordof the material modification process based on the interferometry outputat a plurality of times; and storing the record.

In some embodiments, automatically controlling at least one processingparameter of a material modification process based on the interferometryoutput comprises controlling the at least one processing parameter ofthe material modification process in real-time during said process.

In some embodiments, the material modification processing beam is alaser beam.

In some embodiments, applying a material processing beam to the samplelocation in the material modification process comprising applying amaterial processing beam to at least one of: metal; semiconductor;dielectric; hard biological tissue; soft biological tissue; polymer;plastic; wood; composite.

In some embodiments, the material processing beam is at least one of anion beam and an electron beam.

In some embodiments, producing an interferometry output comprises:applying a first component of the imaging light to an input of areference arm resulting in an output signal of the reference arm, thereference arm having said another optical path length; applying a secondcomponent of the imaging light to a sample arm resulting in an outputsignal of the sample arm, at least a component of the output signal ofthe sample arm including reflections of the component of the imaginglight from the sample location, the sample arm having said at least oneoptical path length; and combining the output signal of the referencearm and the output signal of the sample arm to produce a combined signalas said interferometry output; the method further comprising performingsignal detection to produce a measured interferogram from theinterferometry output.

In some embodiments, the method comprises at least one of: generating arespective interferogram for each of a plurality of sample arm,reference arm combinations, wherein there are multiple sample arms;generating a respective interferogram for each of a plurality of samplearm, reference arm combinations, wherein there are multiple referencearms; and generating a respective interferogram for each of a pluralityof sample arm, reference arm combinations, wherein there are multiplereference arms and multiple sample arms.

In some embodiments, generating the interferometry output comprises: ata splitter and/or optical circulator, applying at least a component ofthe image light to a sample arm, resulting in an output signal of thesample arm, at least a component of the output signal of the sample armincluding reflections of the component of the imaging signal from atleast two locations in the sample arm and/or the material beingprocessed, the sample arm having said at least one optical path lengthand said another optical path length; at the splitter and/or opticalcirculator, receiving the output signal from the sample arm anddirecting it towards a detector; and performing signal detection toproduce a measured interferogram from the interferometry output.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: analyzing theinterferometry output to produce a depth measurement reflecting how deepthe material processing beam has penetrated at the sample location.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises performing an analysisbased on the interferometry output and generating feedback control thatcontrols depth cutting relative to an interface that is closest to thecutting laser.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises performing an analysisbased on the interferometry output and generating feedback control thatcontrols depth cutting relative to an interface that is beyond thecurrent cut depth.

In some embodiments, controlling at least one processing parameter ofthe material modification process is based on the depth measurement.

In some embodiments, the at least one processing parameter of thematerial modification process that is controlled comprises at least oneof: on/off state of the material processing beam; average power of thematerial processing beam; pulse duration of the material processingbeam; peak intensity of the material processing beam; density of thematerial processing beam; energy of the material processing beam;particle species of the material processing beam; wavelength of thematerial processing beam; pulse repetition rate of the materialprocessing beam; pulse energy of the material processing beam; pulseshape of the material processing beam scan speed of the materialprocessing beam; focal diameter of the material processing beam; focalposition of the material processing beam; spatial pattern of thematerial processing beam on the sample; material feed rate; coolingmedia flow rate; cover/assist gas flow rate; cover/assist gas pressure;cover/assist gas blend; arc welding process parameters (such as voltage,current and wire feed rate); and additive material feed rate.

In some embodiments, controlling at least one processing parameter ofthe material modification process based on the depth measurementcomprises controlling the material processing beam to be off when thedepth measurement indicates a specified depth.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: analyzing theinterferometry output to produce an indication of at least one of: whenthe material modification source beam has penetrated to a specifieddepth; proximity of the region of the material currently being modifiedto other regions of the material; remaining amount of material to bepenetrated; total depth that has been modified; absolute final depthreached; fluctuations of depth; speed of depth change; and remainingdistance to a subsurface interface.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: sensing at least onechange at a subsurface level based on the interferometry output.

In some embodiments, the at least one change sensed at a subsurfacelevel comprises at least one of: temperature changes, state changes,fluid flow, and pressure waves.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller controls at least onematerial modification parameter based on change sensed at the subsurfacelevel.

In some embodiments, a change at the subsurface level is sensed byobserving changes in a speckle pattern.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises controlling thematerial processing beam source to turn off the material processing beambased on the indication.

In some embodiments, the method of further comprises: controlling thematerial processing beam source to turn on the material processing beambased on the indication.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: storing apre-calculated synthesized interferogram for a target result in amemory; producing a measured interferogram from the interferometryoutput; processing the measured interferogram together with thepre-calculated synthesized interferogram to produce a correlationresult; wherein controlling at least one processing parameter of thematerial modification process is based on the correlation result.

In some embodiments, the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram for atarget result is an estimate of what is expected when reflections returnfrom a specified depth; producing the correlation result comprisesmultiplying the first interferogram by the pre-calculated interferogramon a per detected element basis and then summing.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: shaping at least oneof the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram and the firstinterferogram to compensate for at least one of: spectrometer alignment;spectrometer grating angle nonlinearity; imaging distortion from imagingoptics in the spectrometer; wavelength to wave number/frequencyre-sampling; finite size of detector active area; spectral envelopeshape; dispersion mismatch; and another non-ideality contained in theinterferogram that degrades image quality.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: processing thecorrelation result to identify approximately when the volume modified bythe material processing beam has reached the specified depth.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: identifyingapproximately when the specified depth has been reached when thecorrelation result meets a threshold.

In some embodiments, the at least one path length is to a firstreflector at the sample location and the another path length is to asecond reflector at the sample location.

In some embodiments, the at least one path length is at least two pathlengths to respective reflectors at the sample location, and the anotherpath length is along a reference arm.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: synthesizing thepre-calculated synthesized interferogram.

According to still a further aspect of the invention, there is provideda method for producing and processing an interferometry output, themethod comprising: storing a pre-calculated synthesized interferogramfor a target result in memory; producing an interferometry output;detecting a measured interferogram from the interferometry output;processing the measured interferogram together with the pre-calculatedexpected interferogram to produce a correlation result; and determiningwhen the result meets a threshold.

In some embodiments, for each of a plurality of target results, storinga respective pre-calculated synthesized interferogram in the memory;processing the measured interferogram together with each pre-calculatedsynthesized interferogram to produce a respective correlation result;and determining when each correlation result meets a respectivethreshold.

In some embodiments, the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram is aninterferogram that is an estimate of what is expected when the targetresult is achieved by a material modification beam at a sample location;the measured interferogram is in respect of a sample location; andproducing the correlation result comprises multiplying the measuredinterferogram by the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram on a perdetector element basis and then summing.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: shaping at least oneof the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram and the measuredinterferogram to compensate for at least one of: spectrometer alignment;spectrometer grating angle nonlinearity; imaging distortion from imagingoptics in the spectrometer; wavelength to wave number/frequencyre-sampling; finite size of active area of detector; spectral envelopeshape; dispersion mismatch; and another non-ideality contained in theinterferogram that degrades image quality.

In some embodiments, the target result is an estimate of what isexpected when reflections return from a specified depth.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: controlling amaterial modification beam source to turn off the material modificationbeam when the correlation result meets a threshold.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: controlling at leastone processing parameter of a material modification process when thecorrelation result meets a threshold.

In some embodiments, the at least one processing parameter comprises atleast one of: on/off state of the material processing beam; averagepower of the material processing beam; pulse duration of the materialprocessing beam; peak intensity of the material processing beam; densityof the material processing beam; energy of the material processing beam;particle species of the material processing beam; wavelength of thematerial processing beam; pulse repetition rate of the materialprocessing beam; pulse energy of the material processing beam; pulseshape of the material processing beam scan speed of the materialprocessing beam; focal diameter of the material processing beam; focalposition of the material processing beam; spatial pattern of thematerial processing beam on the sample; material feed rate; coolingmedia flow rate; cover/assist gas flow rate; cover/assist gas pressure;cover/assist gas blend; arc welding process parameters (such as voltage,current and wire feed rate); and additive material feed rate.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: controlling amaterial modification beam source to turn on the material modificationbeam when the correlation result meets a threshold.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: synthesizing thepre-calculated synthesized interferogram.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a methodof generating a record of a material modification process, the methodcomprising: applying a material processing beam to a sample location aspart of the material modification process, wherein the materialmodification process is a welding process; generating imaging light withan imaging optical source; producing an interferometry output using atleast a component of the imaging light that is delivered to the sample,the interferometry output based on at least one optical path length tothe sample compared to another optical path length; and generating arecord of the material modification process based on the interferometryoutput at a plurality of times.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: storing the record.

In some embodiments, the material processing beam and the imaging lightare substantially co-axial when delivered to the sample.

In some embodiments, the record comprises a quality of the laser weld.

In some embodiments, the record comprises an element of the melt pool inthe process of laser welding.

In some embodiments, the record comprises indications of an impendingbreak through.

In some embodiments, a material interface on the interior of the sampleis identified and used for controlling the material modificationprocess.

In some embodiments, the record comprises keyhole stability.

In some embodiments, the record comprises penetration depth.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a methodof generating a record of a material modification process, the methodcomprising: applying a material processing beam to a sample location aspart of the material modification process, wherein the materialmodification process is a medical process employing a laser beam as thematerial processing beam; generating imaging light with an imagingoptical source; producing an interferometry output using at least acomponent of the imaging light that is delivered to the sample, theinterferometry output based on at least one optical path length to thesample compared to another optical path length; and generating a recordof the material modification process based on the interferometry outputat a plurality of times.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises at least one of:selecting a location of a zero optical path length difference pointbelow an area of interest of the sample.

In some embodiments, the zero optical path length difference point isselected to be in the sample being measured.

In some embodiments, the zero optical path length difference point isselected to be below the sample being measured.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises at least one of:Talbot band techniques to tailor the sensitivity vs. depth curve;nonlinear time gating; and accessing an analog fringe signal beforefinal digitization, and then using direct hardware demodulation and/orfiltering to attenuate certain fringe frequencies that correspond todepths where high reflectivity is expected while retaining sensitivityat depths where the signal is weaker.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: using a singleprocessing beam source to process multiple samples in multipleprocessing locations.

In some embodiments, the method comprises: using matched sample armpaths to the multiple processing locations and a common reference path.

In some embodiments, the method comprises: using a respective referencearm for each processing location.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises at least one of:dynamically adjusting the path length of the sample arm; dynamicallyadjusting the path length of the reference arm.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: switching between aplurality of reference arms.

In some embodiments, a method comprises: using the ICI system to track alocation of a point of interest; adjusting (e.g., adaptively) thelocation of the zero optical path length difference point relative tothe location of the point of interest.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises using the ICI systemto perform at least one of: a) tracking a bottom of a hole duringdrilling; b) controlling a speed of perforation; c) observing a pointwhen a material is perforated; d) anticipating a point in time at whichthe laser will perforate a material; e) adjusting the laser process toavoid damage to surfaces below a new hole; f) confirming that a hole isnot refilled after the laser is turned off; g) controlling drilling,cutting or welding to a prescribed depth; and h) controlling drilling,cutting or welding to a selected depth relative to a selected materialinterface.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: configuring the ICIsystem so that the imaging optical source illuminates an area or volumeof the sample that encompasses multiple reflective features of thesample that are different axial heights, or different transversedisplacements relative to the center axis of the imaging beam, or anycombination thereof.

According still another aspect of the invention, there is provided acomputer readable storage medium having stored thereon a record of alaser welding material modification process that is based on aninterferometry output at a plurality of times.

Inline coherent imaging observation and/or control approaches have beensummarized above, and detailed below. More generally, any one, or anycombination of two or more of the described inline coherent imagingobservation and/or control approaches may be applied to one of thefollowing applications:

welding, including hybrid laser arc welding;

brazing;

surface texturing, including dimpling, pitting, roughening, smoothing;

laser driven chemical processes including photopolymerization, metalprecipitation;

annealing, including selective annealing;

tempering;

hardening and heat treating;

sintering;

laser incubation;

trench cutting;

trepan drilling—this is where the laser is rapidly aimed in a circle todrill a round, clean hole;

single-sided breakthrough detection in laser perforation of hard tissue,or metals polymers, ceramics;

cutting of biological material, including materials for synthetic organsand their precursors;

drilling of printed circuit board vias and/or trench cutting in printedcircuit boards;

joining or fusing or welding of biological material.

A further aspect of the invention provides an apparatus comprising: amaterial processing beam source that produces a material processing beamthat is applied to a location of a material in a material modificationprocess, wherein the material modification process is selected fromsintering, welding, and brazing, or a combination thereof; an imaginglight source that produces imaging light; a coherent imaging systemincluding an optical interferometer that produces an interferometryoutput using at least a component of the imaging light that is deliveredto a phase change region and/or a surrounding region created in thematerial before, during, and/or after the material modification process,the interferometry output based on at least one optical path length toat least one point in the phase change region and/or the surroundingregion compared to another optical path length; a detector that receivesthe interferometry output and produces a detector output that isindicative of a characteristic of the phase change region and/or thesurrounding region during the material modification process, and arecord generator that generates at least one record based on thedetector output at a plurality of times.

According to this aspect, the material modification process may be partof an additive manufacturing process, a subtractive manufacturingprocess, or a combination thereof. The additive manufacturing processmay comprise laser sintering, selective laser sintering, laser melting,selective laser melting, direct metal laser sintering, electron beammelting, powder bed 3D printing, or powder bed fusion, or a variant,derivative, or combination thereof. The additive manufacturing processmay comprise a powder fed process, laser metal deposition, direct metaldeposition, or laser cladding, or a variant, derivative, or combinationthereof.

The apparatus may comprise a feedback processor that receives input fromthe coherent imaging system and/or the detector output and produces anoutput used as feedback to control one or more parameters of thematerial modification process.

The apparatus may further comprise one or more auxiliary optical sensor;wherein the one or more auxiliary optical sensor receives at least oneoptical emission from the phase change region, or the surroundingregion, or both, and produces one or more output; wherein the one ormore output is connected to at least one of a signal processor, aquality assurance signal generator, a feedback controller, and a recordgenerator; wherein at least one of the signal processor, qualityassurance signal generator, feedback controller, and record generatorgenerates at least one of a record, annunciation, and feedback output.

The apparatus may control at least one processing parameter of thematerial modification process based on the at least one record. The atleast one processing parameter of the material modification process thatis controlled may include at least one of:

on/off state of the material processing beam;

average power of the material processing beam;

pulse duration of the material processing beam;

peak intensity of the material processing beam;

density of the material processing beam;

energy of the material processing beam;

particle species of the material processing beam;

wavelength of the material processing beam;

pulse repetition rate of the material processing beam;

pulse energy of the material processing beam;

pulse shape of the material processing beam;

scan speed of the material processing beam;

focal diameter of the material processing beam;

focal position of the material processing beam;

spatial pattern of the material processing beam;

cooling media flow rate;

cover/assist gas flow rate;

cover/assist gas pressure;

cover/assist gas blend;

at least one process parameter selected from voltage and current;

additive material feed rate;

additive material feed geometry; and

additive material feed type.

The at least one processing parameter of the material modificationprocess that is controlled may include at least one of powder layerthickness, packing density, layer uniformity, additive material feedrate, and choice of deposited material.

In one embodiment, the apparatus is configured to produce the materialprocessing beam and the imaging light substantially co-axially whendelivered into the phase change region and/or the surrounding region.

In one embodiment, the additive manufacturing process manufactures,modifies, or repairs a three-dimensional object by modifying an additivematerial with the material processing beam.

In accordance with this aspect, also described herein is method forcontrolling a material modification process that uses a materialprocessing beam applied to a location of the material, comprising:applying an imaging light to a phase change region and/or a surroundingregion created in the material before, during, and/or after the materialmodification process; using a coherent imaging system including anoptical interferometer to produce an interferometry output using atleast a component of the imaging light delivered to the phase changeregion and/or a surrounding region before, during, and/or after thematerial modification process, wherein the interferometry output isbased on at least one optical path length to at least one point in thephase change region and/or the surrounding region compared to anotheroptical path length; wherein the interferometry output is indicative ofa characteristic of the phase change region and/or the surroundingregion during the material modification process; using theinterferometry output to control at least one processing parameter thematerial modification process; and wherein the material modificationprocess is selected from sintering, welding, brazing, and a combinationthereof.

According to the method, material modification process may be part of anadditive manufacturing process, a subtractive manufacturing process, ora combination thereof. The additive manufacturing process may compriselaser sintering, selective laser sintering, laser melting, selectivelaser melting, direct metal laser sintering, electron beam melting,powder bed 3D printing, powder bed fusion, a powder fed process, lasermetal deposition, direct metal deposition, or laser cladding, or avariant, derivative, or combination thereof.

The method may further comprise disposing one or more auxiliary opticalsensor to receive at least one optical emission from the phase changeregion, or the surrounding region, or both, and produce one or moreoutput; connecting the one or more output to at least one of a signalprocessor, a quality assurance signal generator, a feedback controller,and a record generator; wherein at least one of the signal processor,quality assurance signal generator, feedback controller, and recordgenerator generates at least one of a record, annunciation, and feedbackoutput; using at least one of the record, annunciation, and feedbackoutput for one or more of controlling, monitoring, and adjusting thematerial modification process.

In one embodiment, controlling may comprise providing additivemanufacturing quality assurance information. The method may includecontrolling at least one processing parameter selected from:

on/off state of the material processing beam;

average power of the material processing beam;

pulse duration of the material processing beam;

peak intensity of the material processing beam;

density of the material processing beam;

energy of the material processing beam;

particle species of the material processing beam;

wavelength of the material processing beam;

pulse repetition rate of the material processing beam;

pulse energy of the material processing beam;

pulse shape of the material processing beam;

scan speed of the material processing beam;

focal diameter of the material processing beam;

focal position of the material processing beam;

spatial pattern of the material processing beam;

cooling media flow rate;

cover/assist gas flow rate;

cover/assist gas pressure;

cover/assist gas blend;

at least one process parameter selected from voltage and current;

additive material feed rate;

additive material feed geometry; and

additive material feed type.

The method may include controlling at least one of powder layerthickness, packing density, layer uniformity, additive material feedrate, and choice of deposited material.

The method may comprise applying the material processing beam and theimaging light substantially co-axially to the phase change region and/orthe surrounding region.

The method may comprise controlling an additive manufacturing processused for manufacturing or repairing a three-dimensional object bymodifying an additive material with the material processing beam.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a better understanding of the invention, and to show more clearlyhow it may be carried into effect, embodiments will be described below,by way of example, with reference to the attached drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a material processing system featuringfeedback control from an inline coherent imaging system provided by anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example implementation of the feedbackcontroller of FIG. 1 .

FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a material processing system featuringfeedback control from an imaging system in which the materialmodification beam source also functions as the imaging light source.

FIGS. 4 and 5 are block diagrams of material processing systemsfeaturing feedback control from an inline coherent imaging system.

FIGS. 6 and 7 are block diagrams of one and two channel materialprocessing systems featuring feedback control from an inline coherentimaging system and a balanced photodetector.

FIG. 8 is a block diagram of an apparatus for processing aninterferometry output using a pre-calculated synthesized interferogram.

FIG. 9 shows an example of M-mode OCT imaging of laser cutting of bovinerib bone in which subsurface structure appears static during exposure tothe initial 1.43×10⁵ pulses, followed by a sudden onset of machiningwith an approximately linear etch rate.

FIGS. 10A and 10B show examples of the material etch rate and removalefficiency in bovine rib bone due to exposure from a ns-duration fiberlaser (constant average power 23 W).

FIGS. 11A and 11B are examples of M-mode OCT imaging of laser cutting ofa multilayer sample.

FIG. 12 is an example of in situ B-mode OCT image of bone before (left)and after (right) drilling.

FIG. 13 is an example of a real-time M-mode image of percussion drillingin steel.

FIG. 14 is a block diagram of another example imaging system provided byan embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 15 is a depiction of a fully processed M-mode image from the systemof FIG. 14 with a line superimposed at the selected filter depth (top),and showing the response from the homodyne filter exhibiting a sharppeak as the machining front crosses the selected depth (bottom).

FIG. 16 is a flowchart of a method of feedback control using thehomodyne filter-based approach.

FIG. 17 is a block diagram of another inline coherent imaging system.

FIG. 18 is a block diagram of a laser surgery system featuring the ICIsystem of FIG. 17 .

FIG. 19 is a block diagram of a welding system featuring the ICI systemof FIG. 17 .

FIG. 20 is a plot comparing Homodyne filtering to standard (cubic splineresampling, FFT) processing.

FIG. 21 shows an imaging beam and a laser produced feature, the imagingbeam having a larger diameter than the laser produced feature, and inwhich the zero optical path length difference point is selected to be ata depth located inside the material being measured.

FIG. 22 shows ICI generated images from single pulse (5 ms durationindicated by vertical lines) oxygen assisted percussion drilling instainless steel foils.

FIG. 23 is a schematic diagram showing how ICI can be used to assessfit-up and gap in laser lap welding.

FIG. 24 depicts a scan by a separate scanning optical coherencetomography system to verify the accuracy of ICI controlled laserdrilling.

FIGS. 25A, 25B, 25C, and 25D depict various options for using the sameICI system with multiple sample locations.

FIG. 26 depicts the use of an ICI system to measure heights of featuresbelow the surface of the sample.

FIG. 27 is a block diagram of another embodiment wherein the ICI systemdirectly controls the machining laser.

FIG. 28 is a block diagram of another embodiment wherein the ICI systeminterfaces indirectly controls the machining laser via a lasercontroller, and also interfaces other system control and/or managementcomponents (e.g., robot motion control, material feed control, etc.).

FIG. 29 is a block diagram of an apparatus according to a generalizedembodiment.

FIG. 30A is a diagram of a coherent imaging system according to oneembodiment.

FIGS. 30B and 30C are diagrams showing two embodiments of an additivemanufacturing apparatus, for use with a coherent imaging system such asthat shown in FIG. 30A.

FIG. 31 is a schematic diagram of a coherent imaging system withmultiple sample arm paths, according to one embodiment.

FIG. 32 is a diagram showing a coherent imaging system beam sample armcontroller that allows the coherent imaging beam angle of incidence tobe changed, according to one embodiment.

FIG. 33 is diagram showing a material modification apparatus including afixed-distance coherent imaging probe beam reference.

FIG. 34 is a diagram showing a material modification apparatus includingauxiliary optical sensors.

FIG. 35 shows layerwise measurements in an additive manufacturingprocess according to an embodiment described herein.

FIG. 36A is a schematic diagram of a material modification process.

FIGS. 36B, 36C, 36D, 36E show interferometry outputs used todistinguish/resolve different material phases of the materialmodification process of FIG. 36A.

FIG. 37 shows data demonstrating interface tracking methods used todistinguish between interface types in an additive manufacturingprocess.

FIGS. 38A and 38B show coherent imaging optical path length measurementsof a static interface may vary over time in heights/depths andbackscattered intensities measured by the coherent imaging system.

FIG. 39 is a diagram showing different multiple scattering eventscompared to a non-multiple scattering, or direct, measurement during acoherent imaging measurement.

FIGS. 40A-40F show coherent imaging measurements of the melt pool in amaterial modification process to assess processing laser power, atinsufficient (FIG. 40A), sufficient (FIG. 40C), and excessive (FIG. 40E)laser power, and corresponding coherent imaging measurements of theresulting tracks shown in (FIGS. 40B, 40D, and 40F), respectively.

FIGS. 41A and 41B show coherent imaging measurements of an additivemanufacturing processes powder bed height (FIG. 41A, upper panel) andbackscattered intensity (FIG. 41B, upper panel), and defects in the rawmaterial layer (FIG. 41B, lower panel, FIG. 41A, lower panel).

FIG. 42 is a diagram showing coherent imaging morphology measurementsused to identify a potential additive manufacturing process failureresulting from part features extruding into the material feedstockdeposition plane.

FIG. 43A is a coherent imaging measurement of the melt pool during laserprocessing in a powder bed additive manufacturing process used toidentify loss of melt pool stability when processing an overhang zone(e.g., about 6.5-13 mm in the figure); and FIG. 43B is a photograph andFIG. 43C is a coherent imaging measurement of the resulting track, usedto assess the quality of the deposited material in the overhang zone.

FIG. 44 shows a coherent imaging morphology measurements (left) anddiagram (right) used to measure/determine the contact angle of liquidmaterial on underlying bulk solid material during an additivemanufacturing process.

FIG. 45 is a diagram showing coherent imaging measurements of the regiontrailing the melt pool/PCR/processing beam, used to assess/determine thequality/consistency of additive manufacturing process material depositedin the track.

FIG. 46 is a diagram showing denuded zones in the powder bed surroundingthe PCR in an additive manufacturing process.

FIG. 47 shows coherent imaging measurements used for alignment relativeto the material processing beam frame of reference 90.

FIGS. 48A and 48B show different schematic aspects of a materialmodification process wherein coherent imaging measurements are combinedwith auxiliary optical detector measurements to detect materialprocessing defects.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 is a logical block diagram of a material processing systemfeaturing inline coherent imaging (ICI) and feedback control, inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention. The system has amaterial processor 10 that implements a material modification process.The material processor 10 has a material processing beam source 12 thatproduces a material processing beam 14 that, in turn, modifies a samplelocated at a sample location 16. Also shown is an imaging optical source18 that produces imaging light 20, at least a component of which isinput to an optical interferometer 22. The interferometer 24 produces aninterferometry output 24 that is input to a feedback controller 26. Thefeedback controller 26 generates feedback 29 that is input to thematerial processor to control at least one processing parameter of thematerial modification process.

The optical interferometer 22 produces the interferometry output usingat least a component of the imaging light 20 that is delivered to thesample location 16. Line 28 is a logical representation of theinteraction between the optical interferometer 22 and the samplelocation 16. The interferometry output 24 is based on a length of atleast one optical path to the sample location compared to a length ofanother optical path. The optical paths are not depicted in the figurein the interest of clarity, but various examples are described later.The sample location is the location from which the reflected imaginglight is collected. The sample location can be selected from variousoptions to achieve different imaging objectives. For example, in someembodiments, the sample location is at the physical location of amaterial sample being processed. In some embodiments, the samplelocation is near the physical location of a material sample beingprocesses. In some embodiments, the sample location is a position chosento yield meaningful information about the material processing.

In some embodiments, the interferometry output at multiple instances isprocessed to identify changes in interferometry output in respect of amaterial being processed. In some embodiments, at least some of thefeedback control is a function of such changes. In some embodiments,changes in the interferometry data are used to provide an indication ofmodification/sample motion “speed” or other rates of change.

In a specific example of processing the interferometry data to identifychanges, in some embodiments, the feedback controller is furtherconfigured to determine if the interferometry output initially comprisessubstantially only light reflected along a reference path (thisreference path may be along a reference arm if there is one or along thesample arm) after which the interferometry output is based on the pathlength of a sample path(s) compared to the path length of the referencepath. This might occur, for example, when the sample location initiallyhas only one reflective surface/subsurface (in no reference arm case) orno reflective surface/subsurface (in reference arm case), and then aftermaterial has been modified and/or moved relative to the imaging optics,at some point there is an additional reflective surface/sub-surfacedetected.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller is further configured todetermine when the interferometry output makes a transition fromcomprising substantially only light reflected along a reference path(this reference path may be along a reference arm if there is one oralong the sample arm) after which the interferometry output is based onthe path length of a sample path compared to the path length of thereference path. The feedback controller generates at least one signalthat influences at least one processing parameter of the materialmodification process based on the interferometry output taking intoaccount the transition.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller 26 is a real-timecontroller that controls the processing parameter of the materialmodification process during the process. In another embodiment, thefeedback controller controls at least one processing parameter duringintervals between successive processes.

In some embodiments, the material modification processing beam source isa laser, such as a solid state, fiber or gas laser.

In some embodiments, the material modification processing beam sourcegenerates an ion beam and/or an electron beam.

The material being processed by such a system may, for example, be oneor more of: metal, semiconductor, dielectric, hard biological tissue,soft biological tissue, plastic, rubber, wood, composite. Othermaterials are possible.

In some embodiments, the interferometer has a combiner, and two distinctarms, referred to as a reference arm, and a sample arm. A firstcomponent of the imaging light is applied to an input of the referencearm resulting in an output signal of the reference arm. A secondcomponent of the imaging light is applied to the sample arm resulting inan output signal of the sample arm. At least a component of the outputsignal of the sample arm includes reflections of the component of theimaging light from the sample location. The combiner combines the outputsignal of the reference arm and the output signal of the sample arm toproduce a combined signal which functions as the interferometry output.Depending on the implementation, the combiner may be a coupler, acirculator, or a splitter; any component that performs the combiningfunction can be used.

In some embodiments, the system also has a signal detector that producesan interferogram from the interferometry output. In some embodiments,the signal detector is in the form of an array of detector elements. Aspecific example is a line camera. Other examples of such a signaldetector are described later in the context of specific detailed exampleimplementations.

Another example of a signal detector that produces an interferogram fromthe interferometry output is an amplified balanced photodiode pair.Other examples of such a signal detector are described later in thecontext of specific detailed example implementations.

In some embodiments, there are multiple sample arms, and a respectiveinterferogram is generated for each sample arm, reference armcombination.

In some embodiments, there are multiple reference arms, and a respectiveinterferogram is generated for each sample arm, reference armcombination.

In some embodiments, there are multiple reference arms and multiplesample arms, and a respective interferogram is generated for each samplearm, reference arm combination.

There may be multiple sample arms, for example, where there are multiplereflectors at the sample location. Such sample arms may share commonoptical components in delivering reflections from the sample to thecombiner, but the optical path lengths will be different. Some of thesample arms may be to subsurface reflectors.

For any cases where multiple interferograms are generated, thesemultiple interferograms are then used by the feedback controller 26 ingenerating the feedback 28 to control the material processor 10.

Recall that the interferometry output is based on a length of at leastone optical path to the sample location compared to a length of anotheroptical path. In some embodiments, the “another optical path” is simplya different optical path to the sample. Effectively, the two paths beingcompared by the interferometer in this case are two paths to differentreflectors of the same sample. In this case, the imaging light willtraverse the same optical path but for small differences between thelocations of the reflectors at the sample location.

In some embodiments, the at least one path length is at least two pathlengths to respective reflectors at the sample location, and the anotherpath length is along a reference arm.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller is further configured todetermine if the interferometry output initially comprises substantiallyonly light reflected along a reference path (this reference path may bealong a reference arm if there is one or along the sample arm) afterwhich the interferometry output is based on the path length of a samplepath compared to the path length of the reference path. This mightoccur, for example, when the sample location initially has only onereflective surface/subsurface (in no reference arm case) or noreflective surface/subsurface (in reference arm case), and then aftermaterial has been removed, at some point there is an additionalreflective surface/sub-surface.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller is further configured todetermine when the interferometry output makes a transition fromcomprising substantially only light reflected along a reference path(this reference path may be along a reference arm if there is one oralong the sample arm) after which the interferometry output is based onthe path length of a sample path compared to the path length of thereference path. The feedback controller generates at least one signalthat influences at least one processing parameter of the materialmodification process based on the interferometry output taking intoaccount the transition.

In some embodiments, the feedback processor performs an analysis basedon the interferometry output to produce a depth measurement reflectinghow deep the material processing beam has penetrated at the samplelocation. In some such embodiments, the feedback controller controls atleast one processing parameter of the material modification processbased on the depth measurement.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller performs an analysis basedon the interferometry output and generates feedback control thatcontrols the depth of processing (e.g., cutting) relative to aninterface that is closest to the processing location.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller performs an analysis basedon the interferometry output and generates feedback control thatcontrols processing depth (e.g., cutting depth) relative to an interfacethat is beyond the current processing depth.

It is to be understood that any processing parameter of the materialmodification process may be controlled by the feedback controller.Specific examples include:

on/off state of the material processing beam;

the average power of the material processing beam;

the pulse duration of the material processing beam;

the peak intensity of the material processing beam;

the density of the material processing beam;

the energy of the material processing beam;

the particle species of the material processing beam;

the wavelength of the material processing beam;

the pulse repetition rate of the material processing beam;

the pulse energy of the material processing beam;

the pulse shape of the material processing beam

the scan speed of the material processing beam;

the focal diameter of the material processing beam;

the focal position of the material processing beam;

the spatial pattern of the material processing beam on the sample;

the material feed rate;

the cooling media flow rate;

the cover/assist gas flow rate;

the cover/assist gas pressure;

the cover/assist gas blend;

the arc welding process parameters (such as voltage, current and wirefeed rate); and

the additive material feed rate (e.g., in brazing).

In a specific example, the feedback controller controls at least oneprocessing parameter of the material modification process based on thedepth measurement by controlling the material modification source beamto be off when the depth measurement indicates a specified depth.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller has an interferogramprocessor that performs an analysis based on the interferometry outputto produce an indication of when the material modification source beamhas penetrated to a specified depth that may, for example be absolute,or relative to a surface or interface associated with the material. Insome such embodiments, the feedback controller controls the materialprocessing beam source to turn off the material processing beam based onthe indication of when the laser has penetrated to the specified depth.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller has an interferogramprocessor that performs an analysis based on the interferometry outputto produce an indication of the proximity of the region of the materialcurrently being modified to other regions of the material.

In some embodiments, the feedback controller has an interferogramprocessor that performs an analysis based on the interferometry outputto produce an indication of the remaining amount of material to bepenetrated.

In some embodiments, an interferogram processor performs analysis basedon the interferometry output to produce an indication of when materialis present at a specified depth, and the feedback controller controlsthe material processing beam source to turn on the material processingbeam based on said indication. FIGS. 6 and 7 are two specific examplesof such a system which features an optical circulator and balancedphotodetector. These figures are described below.

FIG. 2 shows a partial example implementation of a feedback controller.

Shown is a signal detector 30 that receives the interferometry output 18and generates a measured interferogram 32. An interferogram processor 34receives the measured interferogram 32. A memory 36 is provided in whichis stored a pre-calculated synthesized interferogram 37 for a targetresult. The interferogram processor 34 processes the measuredinterferogram together with the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram37 to produce a correlation result 38. The feedback controller controlsat least one processing parameter of the material modification processbased on the correlation result that is a measure of similarity of themeasured interferogram 32 and the synthesized interferogram 37.

The pre-calculated synthesized interferogram for a target result ispre-calculated such that it is immediately available for correlationwith the measured interferogram. It is synthesized in the sense that itis determined from calculations alone; no optical signals are involvedin its generation.

In some embodiments, the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram for atarget result is an estimate of what is expected when a specified depthis reached by the material processing beam.

In some embodiments, the interferogram processor produces thecorrelation result by multiplying the measured interferogram by thepre-calculated interferogram on a detector element basis and thensumming.

In some embodiments, at least one of the pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram and the measured interferogram is shaped to compensate forat least one of:

spectrometer alignment;

spectrometer grating angle nonlinearity;

imaging distortion from imaging optics in the spectrometer;

wavelength to wave number/frequency re-sampling;

finite size of detector active area;

spectral envelope shape;

dispersion mismatch; and

another non-ideality contained in the interferogram that degrades imagequality.

Compensation may, for example, be achieved through a controlledmodulation of the complex phase and amplitude of the individual elementsof the synthesized interferogram. The amount of modulation can bedetermined from at least one of experimental calibration of apparatus,mathematical modelling of optical propagation, theoretical analysis ofsystem response, and a combination of the above. The exact methoddepends on the specific non-ideality to be compensated for.

A specific example is dispersion. For a fixed dispersive element, therelative phase lag/advance of each wavelength arising from thedispersive terms of the material can be added to each element in thesynthesized interferogram. Progressive dispersion (i.e., dispersionintrinsic in the sample) can also be compensated for because thesynthetic interferogram can be calculated differently for each depth tobe measured.

In some embodiments, the correlation result is processed to identifywhen a specified depth has been reached by the material processing beam.This can, for example, be achieved by determining when the correlationresult exceeds a threshold.

In some embodiments, the system further includes an interferogramsynthesizer that synthesizes the pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram.

Another embodiment provides a feedback control system for use with amaterial processing system that implements a material modificationprocess, the material processing system having a camera port. Such afeedback control system comprises the functionality of FIG. 1 , notincluding the material processor. In this case, the opticalinterferometer 22 interacts with the material processor 10 through acamera port, not shown. The feedback 28 is provided from the feedbackcontroller 26 to another input of the material processor 10.

The embodiments described above can, for example, be used to measure thegeometry, morphology, optical scattering and/or composition of amaterial before, during and/or after processing by a materialmodification beam, such as a laser. In some embodiments, feedbackinformation about the geometry/morphology/composition of the materialmay be provided (such as, hole, cut, static or dynamic subsurfacefeatures, and/or melt pool depth) and such information may be used,either directly or indirectly, to control a material modificationprocess, such as a laser modification process.

In some materials, the systems described herein may sense elements ofthe geometry of the material being worked on and their position inrelation to other material geometry elements that are below the surfacewith which the modification beam is interacting. In some embodimentsthis information is used to guide the modification to within prescribedmargins of subsurface geometry, even where the precise location of saidgeometry may have been previously unknown and/or uncharacterized. Insome embodiments, the depth of a laser cut into bone is measured suchthat laser modification may be ceased some distance before it penetratesa subsurface layer of bone of interest. This may be useful for providingsafe margins in laser surgery. In some embodiments, suchmargins/feedback are achieved using analysis of the metrology data, insome embodiments, using techniques that are manual, automatic or somecombination of the two.

In some embodiments, apparatus, methods and systems are provided thatsense changes at the subsurface level, such as but, not limited to,temperature changes, state changes, fluid flow, and/or pressure waves,that can, in some embodiments, be further used to inform the laserexposure process. In some embodiments, these changes are determinedbased on a comparison/analysis of multiple measured interferograms. Thephase of the interferogram is sensitive to movement in the sample on theorder of a few nanometers. Slight temperature, pressure, flow and statechanges cause movements of the tissue that change this phase. Also,coherent images have a characteristic “speckle pattern” that is thepartial result of the microscopic/nanoscopic components of the samplecreating an internal interference pattern. This speckle pattern is alsoextremely sensitive to the changes mentioned above. In some embodiments,subsurface changes are observed during laser processing of varying ratesby analyzing the frequency of the change in speckle pattern.

In some embodiments, the apparatus described is used to track elementsof the melt pool in the process of laser welding. Persons of skill inthe art will appreciate that melt pool (and/or keyhole) stability andpenetration depth can be an indicator of the quality of a laser weld.Some embodiments are used to measure these and/or other indicators and,in some embodiments, for the purposes of disciplining the weldingprocess, aiding welding process development or to produce qualityassurance data for the whole or part of the process.

In some embodiments, the imaging light source is a light source with aspectrum centered at a wavelength, λ_(o), that in some embodiments maybe between 300 and 15000 nm and may have a width, Δλ, that can providean axial resolution, δz, that may be represented by the followingrelationship:

${\delta\mathcal{z}} = {\frac{2\mspace{11mu}\ln\mspace{11mu} 2}{\pi}\frac{\lambda^{2}}{\Delta\lambda}}$

In some embodiments, the imaging light source may be: superluminescentdiodes, laser diodes, light emitting diodes, ultrafast opticaloscillators, semiconductor optical amplifiers and halogen lamps;however, persons of ordinary skill will understand that otherappropriate light sources may be used. In other embodiments, the lightsource may include a superluminescent diode (SLD), in some embodimentshaving an emission spectrum ranging from 1100 nm to 1400 nm or, inalternative embodiments a Ti:AlO₃ oscillator, in some embodiments havingan emission spectrum ranging from 750 nm to 900 nm. In some embodiments,depending on the subsequent detector technology chosen, a light sourcethat has a narrow instantaneous linewidth that is rapidly swept acrossthe spectral band defined by λ_(o) and Δλ may be used instead of ortogether with the other sources mentioned.

In other embodiments, additional light sources may be included formaterial modification. In some embodiments, these sources may havespectra in the region of 200 nm to 15000 nm and can, in someembodiments, be continuous or, in other embodiments, be pulsed in theiremission. In embodiments having pulsed emissions, pulse energies rangingfrom 1 nJ to 1 MJ and pulse durations ranging from 1 fs to 30 minutesmay be used.

In some embodiments a signal detector (which may be a single detector orcombination of detectors) senses the intensities of the differentwavelengths of light of interest. This may involve the use ofdiffractive elements to disperse the spectrum spatially over a detectorarray. Alternatively, the signal detector may be a balanced orunbalanced photodetector where the timing of the arrival of componentsof the spectrum may be known to be simultaneous or dispersed in time.

Electronics may be included that can measure and interpret the detectedsignal. At this point in the information processing chain, the signal isnot optical anymore. In some embodiments, these may include, but are notlimited to, on-board camera hardware, frame grabbers, field programmablegate arrays, application-specific integrated circuits, personalcomputers, data acquisition cards. The electronics hardware may bechosen to complement the feedback schema and methods or algorithmsemployed.

Some embodiments include software and/or hardware stored on anappropriate computer readable storage medium implementing methods oralgorithms capable of identifying the position bottom of the hole and/orsubsurface interfaces and/or changes of interest in the imaging data andcan calculate metrics and control parameters based on their positions,for example their absolute or relative positions.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram of an apparatus in which a modification laser(FL) 100 also serves as the imaging light source. This results in theimaging and processing beam alignment being automatic. In contrast, theembodiments of FIGS. 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 14, 17, 18, 19 , feature a materialprocessing beam source and an imaging optical source. A free-spaceMichelson interferometer is used that includes a beam splitter (BS) 102,dispersion compensator (DC) 104, a reference mirror (RM) 106,galvanometer mirrors (GM) 107 and an objective 116 to focus the lightonto the sample 112. Detection is accomplished by a spectrometercomprising a grating (GR) 114, lens (ASL) 116 and photodetector array(IGALC) 118. The PC 122 and frame grabber (FG) 120 implement theelectronics and algorithm components of the apparatus, methods andsystems described herein. The PC 122 controls the modification laser 100and/or another aspect of the modification process through feedback path124, and in this case functions as the feedback controller.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a first detailed implementation. In thisembodiment, separate modification (ML) 200 and imaging (SLD) 204 lightsources are shown. In this embodiment, the two light paths are combinedby a dichroic or other combining optic (DM) 206 after independent focalobjectives 208,210. In this embodiment, the interferometer can be builtin single or, in other embodiments, in multi-mode optical fibre.Detection is accomplished by means of a high speed spectral detector(HSS) 212. While the embodiment shown displays a 50:50 power splittingratio 214 between sample arm 216 and reference arm 218, in otherembodiments other splitting ratios in the interferometer are possibleand may depend on the availability of optical power and/or the need fordetection sensitivity. In some embodiments, other interferometerconfigurations, e.g., Mach-Zehnder, Sagnac, common path, etc. may bepossible. While, in this embodiment, DM 206 is shown to reflect theimaging light and transmit the modification light, the reverse canadditionally be possible. In some embodiments, the combination of thebeams via polarization-sensitive or neutral reflection optics can occur.A skilled person will understand that detection, processing and feedbackelectronics are omitted from the embodiment shown in this figure andsuch processing steps may be performed within the feedback controller.Feedback controller 214 receives the output of the HSS 212 and controlsthe modification laser 206 and/or some other aspect of the materialmodification process.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a second detailed implementation. In thisembodiment, a high power broadband source is created by coupling short,dispersion-optimized pulses output by broadband source 300 into a lengthof single mode optical fiber 310. This results in an expansion ofspectral bandwidth, in some embodiments, on the order of a factor of 6,though in other embodiments, more or less broadening is possible. Theembodiment shown here features a Ti:AlO₃ laser source 301 that operatesin the region of 650 to 1100 nm. In other embodiments, spectral rangesfrom 300 to 15000 nm from other optical imaging sources are possible. Inthis embodiment, a Glan-Taylor polarizer (GTP) 302, Faraday opticalisolator (ISO) 304, half-lambda waveplate polarization control 305 andFork prism dispersion compensation 306 are shown. In other embodiments,other broadband sources (such as superluminescent diodes, other lasersand/or other broadening methods) may be substituted for the broadenedTi:AlO₃ laser source.

In this embodiment, the modification laser (ML) 320 passes throughcollimator 351 and the imaging beam passes through sample arm collimator353 after which the modification laser beam and the imaging beam arecombined by an optic component (DM) 312 before they are focused by acommon focal objective 314.

In such embodiments, the lens may be achromatic, aspheric and/or conical(i.e., axicon). This beam combination may be focused through an optionalnozzle 316 that can be used to apply assisting fluids (e.g., compressedgas, water spray) to the modification process. The nozzle spray may alsobe independent from the optical beam; i.e., the two are delivered to thesample from different points. The Michelson interferometer includes the50:50 splitter 322 (though in other embodiments, other splitting ratiosmay be used), reference arm collimator 355 and reference mirror 326.Also shown are polarization controllers 324, 325, 330. The spectraldetection in this embodiment involves a fiber-coupled reflective gratingspectrometer 318. In some embodiments, an additional mirror in front ofthe lens (ASL) 321 can allow the beam to approach and leave thereflective grating 318 as close to the Littrow configuration aspossible, improving diffraction efficiency. In some embodiments, atransmission grating and/or multi-grating, and/or Fabry-Perotspectrometer may be used. A silicon line camera 330 produces aninterferogram that is passed to image processing electronics 332, theoutput of which is passed to feedback controller 334. Feedbackcontroller 334 produces a feedback 336 to control the modification laser320 or some other aspect of the modification process.

Proper alignment and beam shaping of the modification and imaging lightcan be beneficial to the quality and usefulness of the imaging data andfeedback control. In some embodiments, it can be desirable to image downinto a high aspect ratio feature such as a hole being drilled. In suchcases, an alignment method (in some embodiments using a dichroic mirrorbeam combiner for imaging and modification light) provides that the twobeams meet on the reflective surface of the combiner at substantiallythe same point. In such embodiments, adequate beam control of the twobeams (one or more mirrors) is beneficial. With the two beams emanatingfrom the same point of the combining optic, they can then be focusedthrough a suitably achromatic (or other design) lens. In someembodiments, the use of an array detector or a pinhole (in someembodiments made by the modification laser itself) located at the focalplane of the lens can aid the adjustment of the combining optic, so thatboth beams focus on substantially the same spot. This can, in someembodiments, be used to match the reference arm length of theinterferometer to place the center of the focal volume at a desiredposition in the imaging field of view. This position may be selected onthe basis of the modification application at hand and may additionallybe adjusted throughout the modification process. In other embodiments,such as those where a common focal lens is not used, it may bebeneficial to have the central ray for all beams coincident on thecombining optic. It may additionally be desirable to shift the focalpositions of the imaging and modification beams independently from oneanother, to more efficiently image/modify depths of choice. In someembodiments, this may be accomplished by adjusting the divergence of theimaging or modification beams before they reach the common focusinglens. For example, the divergence of the imaging beam may be increasedby decreasing the distance between the sample arm collimator lens andthe fiber tip.

The focal spot size of the imaging and modification beams can have animpact on the quality of the imaging results. A careful consideration ofmorphology aspect ratio and imaging beam numerical aperture should bemade. In embodiments where an imaging beam is much smaller than the holetransversely, the resulting imaging data may give a clear signature ofthe bottom of the hole and interfaces below it. However, in suchembodiments, the practical imaging range may be limited by the shortRaleigh range present in a high numerical aperture beam. In someembodiments, a numerical aperture is employed to reject signals thatemanate from the sidewalls of the hole. In such embodiments, if portionsof a hole/incision periphery are illuminated in a sample that is(quasi)transparent and captured by the imaging system, the correspondingsignals may complicate the imaging data and may make it more difficultfor an automatic algorithm to use the data for feedback. However, inembodiments where the sample is nontransparent, it may be beneficial tohave some illumination of the sidewalls as such a signal can provideinformation about cut width, recast deposition and the depth of the bulkmaterial.

In some embodiments, the optical components are matched (in someembodiments the group delay and higher order dispersion terms) in thesample and reference arms to reduce any dispersion mismatch between thetwo arms. This may improve axial imaging resolution. It may also bebeneficial to change this dispersion compensation in the reference armto match additional dispersion caused by material present in the sample.

Dispersive mismatch may be intentionally added to the interferometer andimage processing algorithms modified to increase the effective imagingrange of the system using dispersion-encoded full range techniques suchas those described by Hofer et al. (Optics Express 18:4898-919 (2010)hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety).

When imaging into a sample, the degree of carbonization that may becreated by the modification laser can be a consideration. Lasers thatcause large amounts of charring can reduce the imaging depth (and theadvance notice for perforation etc.). Selecting lasers with reducedcarbonization (ultrashort pulses, center wavelengths of 3000 nm, 9600 nmetc.) may be beneficial.

Methods and algorithms may be used to process the raw data and/orprovide feedback parameters, and may include steps of backgroundspectrum subtraction, resampling/interpolation between the spectrometerpixels, wavelength and/or frequency space, noise floor equalization,fast Fourier transformation, Kasai autocorrelation/Doppler shiftingand/or other calculations based on the phase and/or separation ofinterference fringes. Such methods may be implemented in hardware and/orsoftware running on a processor or processors. In some embodiments ananalysis of a speckle pattern and/or changes thereof is employed toindicate tissue differentiation, temporal heating dynamics and/or othercharacteristics of the sample. These analyses may, for example, beperformed by calculating the spatial or temporal variation of thespeckle and its amplitude. Such methods and algorithms are in someembodiments used to assess the depth of thermal damage that hasoccurred, is occurring and/or will occur in the future. Methods ofsignal extraction that forgo many of the previous steps are alsopossible. In one embodiment, a set of homodyne or heterodyne waveformscan be pre-calculated based on one or a plurality of simulated opticalpath length differences, nonlinearities/nonidealities in thespectrometer, wavelength to wavenumber/frequency conversions, single ormulti-order dispersion mismatch in the interferometer, Doppler shifts,non-ideal spectral shapes and other adjustments to the imaging data.Sets of such homodyne/heterodyne waveforms can be multiplied against thedata collected by the hardware or software to determine imaginginformation at one or more of the voxels in the imaging space. Thisresult may be obtained due to the orthogonality and/orquasi-orthogonality of the different interference fringe frequenciespresent in the acquired data. Detailed examples of this approach aredescribed below. In some embodiments, methods and algorithms may providecomputational savings when compared to other methods that use, forexample, fast Fourier transformation. This may be desirable forreal-time feedback applications where a fast response generally providesimproved outcomes from the process. Processing can, in some embodiments,use the full spectrum data set, or, in other embodiments, use asubsection of the data set. In embodiments using a subsection of thedata set, this can reduce processing time, and can provide lower axialresolution, which may be useful for a variety of feedback purposes.Homodyne/heterodyne filtering can also have applications in generalimage processing in the Fourier domain variants of Optical CoherenceTomography where the large number of post-processing and/or real-timecalculations (including interpolation, digital dispersion compensation,spectral shaping etc.) may encumber the computational efficiency of thesystem. Though not limited to this case, such embodiments may be usefulin situations where imaging is targeting a subsection of the full depthof field.

In some embodiments, it is beneficial to obtain the homodyne waveform(s)by measuring a real interferogram when an interface is at specificdepth(s) in the image. The complex homodyne waveform(s) may be obtainedby shifting the interface optomechanically by moving the interface,optically with phase shifting optics and/or through digital processing,which may use Hilbert transforms and other methods. Additional shapingsteps (which may include denoising, averaging, envelope shaping) maythen be applied to further optimize these waveforms. In someembodiments, the spectral profile is shaped through digital, optical(including, but not limited to mechanical blocking, polarizationadjustment, neutral density filtering, interference filtering,Fabry-Perot elements) or other methods to change the effective pointspread function of the algorithm to be more optimal for feedback use.For example, in one embodiment, a non-Gaussian spectral profile may beapplied digitally to the homo/heterodyne waveform to create additionallobes in the point spread function. These lobes may be engineered toprovide “early warning” signals or structured local/global minima andmaxima for the feedback algorithm to settle in.

In embodiments where the sample is transparent or semitransparentmaterial, the space originally occupied by the sample bulk can be filledwith air as material is removed by a modification laser. In embodimentswhere the sample has an optical index of refraction that is greater thanair, as material is removed, the optical path length to any subsurfacereflectors may be reduced. This has the effect of changing apparentdepth of said reflectors (in some embodiments, closer to and, in otherembodiments, further from, the zero optical path length differencepoint) at a rate that is generally related to the linear removal rate ofmaterial and the optical index. In embodiments using an M-mode image(“motion-mode”, shown in later examples), the superficial interface andthe subsurface interface trend towards each other with continuingmaterial removal until their eventual meeting at the point ofperforation. Sensing the separation of the two interfaces and using suchseparation as an input into a feedback method or algorithm may be usedto represent a surgical margin to be preserved/monitored. In the Fourierdomain, these two interfaces may appear as two separate frequencies thatare approaching each other. Apparatus and systems implementing methodsand algorithms that sense the change in frequency difference between thetwo signals can communicate such information to a process controllerand/or user that can control the cut.

The same technique may be applied to any material processing systemwhere multiple interfaces indicate specific features of the sample, andit is desired to control the material processing based in part on depthmeasurements to those features.

Measuring the relative slopes can measure the effective optical index ofrefraction of the material being removed. This can be an indicator ofthe material's composition which can be useful information to feed back.In some embodiments, it may be possible to detect when the modificationlaser has perforated one material and started on the next by tracking achange in the relative slope.

These same principles may also be applied to situations where thematerial that fills the hole is water and/or materials other than air.

In some embodiments, a circulator is added to the interferometer betweenthe source and the fiber splitter. In some embodiments, a balancedphotodetector (in addition to or instead of the spectrometer) is used todetect the interference fringes that are created as the interfacearrives at the zero optical path length difference point of theinterferometer. In such embodiments, the balanced photodetector may havehigher measurement rates than an array of detectors or the sweep rate ofa Fourier domain mode locked laser (or other swept source), and improvefeedback response. This can provide fast, simple and inexpensivefeedback to detect the arrival of an interface at a certain depth. Insome embodiments, this can be used to detect when material is present ata certain distance away from the system optics. It is known to thoseskilled in the art that the effectiveness of a focused laser beam maydepend on the distance between the focus and the material to bemodified. This embodiment could be used to provide feedback to thematerial processing system with picosecond accuracy. In someembodiments, this feedback may be used to permit emission ofmodification energy only when material is present in a selected depthzone (SDZ) that may, in some embodiments, be related to the focal zoneof the modification laser. The SDZ position and thickness may be tunedthrough control of the imaging light source spectrum and the referencearm length. This tuning may be factory set and/or may be dynamically setby the operator. In some embodiments, the imaging and modification beamsmay be coupled to a handpiece and the SDZ configured to be co-locatedwith the focus of the modification beam some distance away from thedistal end of the handpiece. In this way, the handpiece acts as anoptical analogue to the traditional surgical scalpel. The SDZ would beanalogous to the edge of the tip of the scalpel blade and may be used toincise material that is located at the SDZ.

This may have a number of advantages including, but not limited toproviding a tactile interface that is familiar to surgeons, reducingtotal laser energy use, reducing total laser exposure to the materialand/or patient. It is known to those skilled in the art that some kindsof laser modification of materials may generate plasma above thematerial that scatters and/or absorbs laser energy. While such plasma ispresent, further applied energy may not have the desired modificationeffect and may contribute to larger heat affected zones. In someembodiments, the plasma may block imaging light, thus preventingreflections from the material from triggering the feedback system untilsaid plasma has dissipated. This provides the advantage of limitingmodification application energy from being applied unless the plasmaconditions near the sample are favourable.

In some embodiments, the feedback control may be used in conjunctionwith an operator switch (such as a foot pedal) such that the operatorcan indicate his/her consent to emit modification energy when theoptoelectronic feedback conditions are met.

In some embodiments, the feedback control may be effected on themodification energy source by way of optical pulse picker, digital seedpulse control, pump modulation, shutter, electro-optic modulator,Pockles cell and/or acousto-optic modulator.

A specific example is depicted in FIG. 6 which shows optical circulator350 and balanced photodetector 352. The output of the balancedphotodetector 352 goes to feedback controller 354 which controls themodification beam source.

A two channel version is depicted in FIG. 7 . The path length down thesample arm of one channel is approximately the same as that of thereference arm, but very different from their counterparts in channel 2(and further channels if present) to avoid cross talk in theinterference signal.

The embodiments of FIGS. 6 and 7 are examples of systems that can beused to detect when material is present at a specific depth. (10 a).Reflections of imaging light emanating from the sample and captured bythe system optics will generate an interference signal at the (balanced)photodetector when the reference and sample optical path lengths arematched.

Optical dispersion induced by a sample being measured can have anadverse effect on the axial resolution of coherent images. In someembodiments, the sample can induce a wavelength dependent phase shift onthe interference pattern that may be dependent on the depth that thelight has propagated in the sample. A homodyne/heterodyne algorithm, forexample, as described above, can be used to compensate for theseeffects. The dispersion coefficients of the materials in the sample can,in some embodiments, be calculated a priori or, in other embodiments, bedetermined iteratively. One may begin by assuming that the phase shiftsinduced by the sample increase linearly with increasing penetration intothe sample. In this way, each color (i.e., pixel measurement) on thedetector may have a certain phase shift dictated by which color it isand what depth in the sample the signal is returning from. If the colormeasured by each pixel and the depth associated with eachhetero/homodyne waveform can both be known a priori, this distortion canbe estimated and calculated a priori and may be incorporated into theheterodyne/homodyne waveforms that are multiplied against the signalthat is measured by the detector(s). Alternatively, measurement of theoptical signal propagating through the system may also providedispersion mismatch information used for compensation. A hetero/homodynewaveform lookup table can be prepared before the imaging session. Insuch embodiments, the dispersion correction can be applied with zeroadditional real-time computing load.

Interferogram Correlation Thresholding Apparatus

Referring now to FIG. 8 , shown is an interferogram correlationthresholding apparatus provided by an embodiment of the application.Shown is an interferometer 46 that produces an interferometry output 48.There is a signal detector 50 that receives the interferometry output 48and generates a measured interferogram 52. An interferogram processor 54receives the measured interferogram. A memory 56 is provided in which isstored a pre-calculated synthesized interferogram. The interferogramprocessor 54 processes the measured interferogram together with thepre-calculated synthesized interferogram to produce a correlation result58. A thresholder 60 is configured to determine when the correlationresult satisfies a threshold.

The pre-calculated synthesized interferogram for a target result ispre-calculated such that it is immediately available for correlationwith the measured interferogram. It is synthesized in the sense that itis determined from calculations alone; no optical signals are involvedin its generation. Details of how this interferogram can be adjusted apriori to perform various compensations have been provided above.

In some embodiments, there is a respective pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram for each of a plurality of target results. Theinterferogram processor 54 processes the measured interferogram togetherwith each of the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram to produce arespective correlation result. The thresholder 60 determines when eachcorrelation result meets a respective threshold.

In some embodiments, the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram is aninterferogram that is an estimate of what is expected when the targetresult is achieved by a material modification beam at a sample location,and the measured interferogram is in respect of a sample location. Theinterferogram processor produces the correlation result by multiplyingthe measured interferogram by the pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram on a per wavelength basis and then summing.

In some embodiments, at least one of the pre-calculated synthesizedinterferogram and the measured interferogram is shaped to compensate forat least one of:

spectrometer alignment;

spectrometer grating angle nonlinearity;

imaging distortion from imaging optics in the spectrometer;

wavelength to wave number/frequency re-sampling;

finite size of detector active area;

spectral envelope shape;

dispersion mismatch; and

another non-ideality contained in the interferogram that degrades imagequality.

Some embodiments feature an interferogram synthesizer that calculatesthe pre-calculated synthesized interferogram.

In some embodiments, the target result is a specified depth reached bythe material modification beam.

In some embodiments, the apparatus has a feedback controller thatcontrols a material modification source to turn off the materialmodification beam when the correlation result meets a threshold.

In some embodiments, the apparatus has a feedback controller thatcontrols a material modification source to turn on the materialmodification beam when the correlation result meets a threshold.

In some embodiments, the apparatus has an interferogram synthesizer thatsynthesizes the pre-calculated synthesized interferogram.

Automatic Guidance of Laser Cutting of Hard Tissue with Inline CoherentImaging

In some embodiments, one or more of the systems and methods describedabove, and related software stored on computer storage media areconfigured for automatically and/or manually guiding the removal of hardtissue by laser irradiation.

In some embodiments, the basis of the imaging technology is spectraldomain optical coherence tomography, but in other embodiments, othervariants (swept source OCT, optical frequency domain imaging, timedomain OCT etc.) are employed. It is noted that the motion artifactsgenerated in SDOCT are favourable and SDOCT usually has acceptablerejection of the intense machining light.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging is used to rapidly measure depthand reflectivity information from a sample that is being machined with alaser. The imaging beam is often able to see through the ejecta, plasma,intense imaging light and beyond the modification zone. This allows theidentification and tracking of subsurface geometry that, in someembodiments, is then used as a reference to spare thin layers of tissue.

The combination of imaging and machining light is accomplished, forexample, with a dichroic mirror, but may also be achieved withpolarization and other techniques known to those skilled in the art.Virtually any modification laser (250-10600 nm spectra, CW, μs, ns, ps,fs durations) can be used in this way. This may permit the tailoring ofthe machining laser to the application or the use of existinginfrastructure/FDA approvals.

Other useful applications of the imaging system when integrated into amachining platform are autofocus, permanent therapeutic records and(with the addition of scanning optics) pre-treatment planning andpost-treatment confirmation.

Some embodiments employ a streamlined image processing algorithm thatuses a lookup table for hetero/homodyning in lieu of more complexoperations that require interpolation, digital dispersion compensation,fast Fourier transforms etc.

Other embodiments feature the inclusion of one or more of scanningmirrors, more complicated machining sources, gas assisted cutting, moreperformant spectrometer designs, etc.

Coaxial imaging of laser machining processes with SDOCT provides usefulinformation for measuring critical parameters for process development,such as etch rate and morphology relaxation, in industrial materials. Incutting tissue such as bone, SDOCT has similar benefits. To demonstrate,an SDOCT system based on a 100 fs mode locked Ti:AlO₃ oscillator@805 nm(Coherent Mira 900) broadened in single mode optical fiber was used.With a high speed CMOS spectrometer and fiber based Michelsoninterferometer, the imaging system provides <5 μm axial resolution (inair) and >100 dB sensitivity measured at 150 μm with a 1.5 μs (measured)integration time at a maximum line rate of 312 kHz. Images wereprocessed in LabVIEW on 4 cores of a PC (and/or other softwareenvironments) using background spectrum subtraction, Gaussian spectralshaping, cubic spline interpolation, FFT and noise floor equalization.Other processing techniques and methods (mentioned in this description)have also been applied.

For machining in these experiments, a 100-200 ns (FWHM) pulsed fiberlaser was used (IPG YLP-100-30-30-HC) with an average power at thesample of 23 W at 1070 nm and repetition rates from 30-80 kHz. Themachining and imaging beams were aligned via a dichroic mirror andfocused together via a single 50 mm achromatic lens. Fiber collimatorswere chosen such that both imaging and machining focal diameters wereapproximately 20 μm (1/e²) with depths of focus of 500 and 340 μmrespectively. Having the same imaging and machining spot sizes reducedsidewall signals (discussed later) and simplified the images. Theimaging and machining light are were delivered coaxially through a 500μm diameter gas nozzle orifice (nozzle to sample surface separation 1mm) that delivered N₂ gas (in other cases, other gases and blends weredelivered as well) at 2 bar to provide cooling, protection of the opticsand suppression of combustion.

Washed and desiccated transverse sections of bovine ribs served asconvenient samples of thick, compact bone. The imaging system andmachining pulse trains were asynchronously triggered as holes werepercussion drilled into the samples in a direction transverse to themarrow axis. The M-mode images (“motion-mode”—reflectivity as a functionof depth and time) showed that the cutting behavior was characterized byinitial periods of little to no material modification followed by arapid change in the sample and the sudden onset of cutting at ˜10 mm/s.While this behaviour is common to this particular modification source,it has been seen to be substantially different using other sources. InFIG. 9 , an example section of an M-scan shows this sudden onset after143,000 machining pulses and the approximately linear progression of thehole thereafter.

The number of machining pulses required to initiate cutting varied from10² to 10⁶ on the same bone sample. This is attributed to the largedegree of inhomogeneity in the tissue sample. While this behaviour iscommon to this particular modification source, it has been seen to besubstantially different using other sources. Small variations inabsorption and thermal resistance in the bone (from the presence ofblood vessels, etc.) may create thermal “nucleation” sites whereinitially slow changes in residual moisture or carbonization lead torunaway increases in optical absorption and cutting. The variability inonset would likely be reduced for an ablation light source producing acentre wavelength with a short absorption depth in the tissue. In anycase, in situ monitoring of the area of the sample exposed to machininglight provided a direct readout of the onset of ablation.

Once cutting is initiated, material removal was approximately linearwith pulse number. Several subsurface interfaces appeared to rise andmeet the primary machining front. OCT measures optical path length andis thus affected by the index of refraction of the medium. Materialremoval above an interface reduces the optical path length to thestationary subsurface features. The ratio of the slopes (Equation below,l-apparent depth of subsurface feature, x-hole depth) gave a directmeasure of the effective index of the material being removed (n). Here nwas found to be 1.5 in close agreement with past reports of 1.530 forsimilar tissue. These features can provide useful information for guidedcutting as discussed below.

$\frac{dl}{dt} = {\left( {1 - n} \right)\frac{dx}{dt}}$

Due to the stochastic nature of the onset of ablation, measuring perpulse or per fluence cut rates using conventional ex situ methods wouldbe very difficult. Nevertheless, these parameters are importantinformation for engineering surgical equipment and procedures. Withinline coherent imaging, these measurements are straightforward and theinformation is available immediately after (and, in fact, during) theprocess, requiring no further modification of the samples. As ademonstration, 23 holes were drilled into ribs at four differentrepetition rates keeping average power constant (23 W). FIGS. 10A and10B show the material etch rate and removal efficiency in bovine ribbone due to exposure from ns-duration fibre laser (constant averagepower 23 W). Error bars indicate the standard deviation of the results.Simple inspection of the M-mode data yields the resulting cut rates(FIGS. 10A and 10B with error bars indicating 95% standard deviationconfidence intervals). Though ablation is achieved through thermalprocesses, material removal is not simply dependent on average power.For example, in FIG. 10A, etch rate increases by only ˜50% when pulseenergy is almost tripled. Another way of showing this result is toconsider the efficiency of material removal per unit incident light.Often it is desirable to reduce the light exposure without sacrificingcutting speed. Increased material removal efficiency is observed byincreasing the repetition rate of the ablation laser source (FIG. 10B).Explained in simple terms, pulses with half the energy but twice therepetition rate are more effective at ablation than pulses with twicethe energy but half the repetition rate. This suggests that intrapulseeffects such as shielding from plasma generation/ejecta is reducingmaterial removal and greater efficiency could be obtained from furtherincreasing the repetition rate.

To demonstrate the versatility of the technique in guiding cutting, aportable ICI system based on a fiber-coupled superluminescent diode pair(1320±35 nm) and reflective grating spectrometer with InGaAs photodiodearray was used. Use of this spectral band permits deeper imaging inbone, at the expense of speed and detector cost. Once integrated intothe micromachining platform, the system has a 14 μm axial resolution, 30μm transverse spotsize (1/e²) in air. The large imaging beam width isused to collect morphology information from both the bottom of theincision as well as the surrounding tissue as discussed below. Thissystem had a 98 dB sensitivity measured at 300 μm with 10 μs integrationtime and 7 mW incident on sample. The axial line rate is detectorlimited at 47 kHz. In this implementation, images were processed inLabVIEW on 4 cores of a PC using background spectrum subtraction, linearinterpolation, FFT and noise floor equalization.

The machining source used here is a 100 W (maximum average power) fiberlaser (IPG YLR-100-SM) at 1070 nm focused to 23 μm (1/e²) that is pulsedvia TTL command to emit 300 ns FWHM (measured) duration, 230 μJ pulsesincident on the sample at a repetition rate of 47 kHz. Though the pulseFWHM is measured to be 300 ns, the shape is highly asymmetric with atotal duration of approximately 3 μs. Longer duration pulses thatcorrespond to a simpler pulse shape were also explored but resulted indegraded cut quality and reduced reproducibility.

Both imaging and cutting beams were coaxially aligned via a dichroicmirror and focused together via a single 50 mm achromatic lens. Imagingwas electronically controlled to trigger asynchronously with laserexposure to provide the maximum delay between laser exposure andimaging. Though the tissue had not relaxed to equilibrium betweenpulses, the delay improves imaging contrast by minimizing fringe washoutfrom fast changing interfaces.

The tested sample was cortical bone extracted from the spinous processesof the bovine lumbar vertebrae. To create thin sections of bone suitablefor this proof of concept, a 1 mm diameter water cooled drill bit wasused to hollow out small sections of the sample leaving approximately600 um of bone sitting above a ˜1 mm air gap. The bone/air interfaceprovided an ideal target interface for machining.

M-mode imaging of the bone during laser exposure shows the progress ofthe machining front as a function of machining pulse. FIG. 11 showsmachining where the laser exposure is controlled to achieve perforationinto the air gap (left) and to stop the incision before perforation(right). FIG. 11A shows two groups of 1000 pulses causes perforationinto air layer, showing next bone layer (depth 1.7 mm). FIG. 11B showsthe application of 7 groups of 200 pulses results in cutting stopped 150micron before penetration. Imaging (47 kHz) continued after cutting toshow material relaxation after drilling. Annotations (intended as guidesto the eye): MF—Machining Front; SI—Subsurface interface; AI—Airinterface; BW—Back wall; P—Point of perforation; LO—Machining laser off;AG—Air gap; SB—Spared bone. The onset of material removal proved to behighly variable, e.g., taking 400 pulses in FIG. 11A, and only 50 inFIG. 11B, likely due to the nonuniformity of the top bone layer, as wellas the nondeterministic nature of the onset of damage in CW machiningOnce machining was initiated, it progressed with a well-defined rateuntil perforation (FIG. 11A), and the secondary bone layer becamevisible. Some obstruction of the imaging beam causes shadowing ofsubsurface structure, but tissue striations are clearly visible, withthe most pronounced discontinuity due to the bone/air interface. Asdescribed earlier, the striations below the machining front appear tomove upwards during material removal.

Scattering from above the machining front is observed in all images.This comes from scattering from the sidewalls of the hole. An imagingbeam width larger than the machining beam was used to allow monitoringof sidewall modifications, thus achieving some degree of transverseinformation without lateral scanning. Lateral scanning is also done insitu (see below) but at the expense of reduced imaging rate. After laserexposure is terminated (pulse 2000 in FIG. 11A, pulse 1400 in FIG. 11B),the sample relaxes and sidewall and subsurface features become static.Variation in scattered light during machining arises due to changes insurface morphology as well as fringe washout for fast moving interfaces.Note that in SDOCT interfaces that move more than half the wavelength oflight during the camera integration time will suffer reduced contrast.This motion-induced artifact is preferable over time-domain orswept-source variations of OCT where other fast moving interfaces willappear at incorrect depths, thus making tracking the incision moredifficult.

By translating the sample, B-mode images of the drilling site before andafter processing were obtained. Since in situ imaging is automaticallyaligned with the hole axis, deep imaging in high aspect ratio (>20)holes was straightforward. FIG. 12 shows in situ B-mode OCT image ofbore before (left) and after (right) drilling. The two clear holes showthe lower bone interface, while the middle hole (corresponding to FIG.12 right) was drilled to stop 150 μm before the air gap. The spared bonethickness is highlighted with brace brackets. Back walls seen throughholes corresponding to those in FIG. 12 (left) are labelled BW. Themiddle hole clearly shows the spared bone (brace brackets in FIG. 12right) above the air gap. The other two holes are through holes, showingthe air gap and scattering from the lower bone layer. Increasedscattering from the sidewalls of the holes caused by tissue modificationin the thermal cutting process does reduce the penetration depth of theimaging light, sometimes obscuring deeper features. This can beminimized by selecting a laser modification process that causes littleor no carbonization of the modification site.

Applying these forward looking coherent imaging capabilities may, insome instances, result in tracking of machining in hard tissue overmillimeter length scales with several orders of magnitude greatertemporal resolution than has previously been reported. It isdemonstrated that real-time imaging permits accurate cutting in tissuesin which little a priori information is available and which may have ahighly stochastic response to machining energy. This development is animportant step towards fine control in hard tissue surgical procedures,particularly in the vicinity of sensitive organs such as the nervoussystem.

Spectral Domain Optical Coherence Tomography

Embodiments described herein use spectral domain optical coherencetomography and variants. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography(SDOCT) has been described as the optical analogue of ultrasoundimaging. The measurement uses a white light, optical fiberinterferometer to obtain the optical path length (OPL) of an objectrelative to a fixed reference length. In the spectral domain, therelative OPL of the sample reflection is encoded in the spacing of thespectral interference fringes in the output from the interferometer.Specifically, consider a set of p reflectors in the sample arm, eachwith an OPL difference from the reference length of z_(i). The resultingspectral interferogram intensity is approximately:

${I(k)} = {{A(k)}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{p}\left\lbrack {\frac{I_{ref}}{2p} + \frac{I_{i}}{2} + {\sqrt{I_{ref}I_{i}}{\cos\left( {2k\;{\mathcal{z}}_{i}} \right)}}} \right\rbrack}}$

A(k) is the spectral envelope of the imaging light source and k iswavenumber. The first term is known a priori and can be subtracted as abackground signal. The second term is typically very small and can beneglected. In the third term, the weak sample reflection (I_(i)) has itsintensity multiplied by the strong reference signal and appears as asinusoidal interference fringe whose spacing (i.e., frequency) dependson its depth (z_(i)). Since each depth corresponds to a different fringefrequency, the signals are orthogonal and can be monitored independentlywith no moving parts. Acquisition speed and signal-to-noise aretherefore limited by the detector and the intensity of the imaginglight. It should be emphasized that ICI can work coaxially with themachining beam, enabling depth sensing with hole aspect ratios muchhigher than would be possible with triangulation methods.

To extract depth information, the spectral interferogram (measured witha spectrometer) may be resampled to units of constant wavenumber byinterpolation and may be transformed to I(z) via FFT. The resultingfunction (known as an A-scan or A-line) is a depth-reflectivity profileof the sample (shown in logarithmic units relative to the noise floor)with each reflecting interface in the sample appearing as a point spreadfunction (PSF) centered about its depth. The PSF full width at halfmaximum (FWHM) is usually referred to as the axial resolution of thesystem, and for Gaussian A(k) as:

${\delta\mathcal{z}} = {\frac{2\mspace{11mu}\ln\mspace{11mu} 2}{\pi}\frac{\lambda^{2}}{\Delta\lambda}}$

Thus a short center wavelength (λ) of the light source and broadspectrum (Δλ) are desired for high resolution imaging Typical axialresolutions in biological imaging on the order 5-10 μm are achieved withquasi Gaussian spectra of 830±30 nm FWHM (ophthalmology) or 1310±35 nmFWHM (scattering tissue).

One important imaging artifact may arise due to the ambiguity betweenpositive and negative OPL (z_(i) and −z_(i) yield the sameinterferogram). Since the spectral interferogram is purely real, thedepth-reflected profile has complex conjugate symmetry about zero. Halfof the image is usually discarded leaving only positive OPLs. However,if a reflecting interface is located on the negative side of thereference point, its signature wraps back into the image as an artifact.Thus, some embodiments are designed with an adequate depth field of view(FOV) and care is taken to ensure that all reflecting interfaces arelocated on only one side of the zero optical path length differencepoint.

To create an image, many spectral interferograms may be acquiredserially by the spectrometer, processed into A-lines(“axial-line”-reflectivity as a function of depth) and then displayed asa 3D dataset of reflectivity vs. depth vs. A-line number. In biologicalimaging, the A-line number corresponds to transverse position as theimaging beam is raster scanned. This produces an image of reflectivityas a function of two spatial dimensions known as a B-mode image(B=brightness). Alternatively, if the beam is static, the A-line numbercorresponds to time and the resulting image is called an M-mode image(M=motion). This type of image is useful for observing fast changes inthe depth-reflectivity profile of the sample. For example, coaxialimaging during the percussion drilling of 304 stainless steel with a1070 nm center wavelength, 100 ns duration fiber laser (IPGYLP-1/100/30/30-HC) gives the M-mode image in FIG. 13 . The machiningfront (bright white curve) is seen descending ˜600 μm into the bulk ofthe sample. The complete etch depth vs. pulse number relationship wasobtained from drilling a single hole and required no post-cut materialprocessing.

7600 pulses were incident onto a 20 μm e⁻² intensity diameter spot at 30kHz. A coaxial oxygen assist gas jet at 8.3 bar was used. Imaging rateis 300 kHz. Graph brightness corresponds to sample reflectivity inlogarithmic scale. The dynamic range shown is ˜60 dB.

With acquisition rates of even a few tens of kilohertz, M-mode imagesare not only able to directly measure etch rates but also melt pool flowand other dynamics of laser drilling/welding processes. Since sensingbelow the machining front is possible, M-mode data may also be used inconjunction with appropriate feedback hardware to guide blind holecutting in a variety of semitransparent materials including biologicaltissue even when the exact sample geometry is not known a priori.

FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram of another imaging system provided by anembodiment of the invention that will be used as an example for homodynemixing. However, homodyne mixing can be used with any of the systemsdescribed herein. Labels: ISO—Fiber Coupled Optical Isolator 400;50:50—Mode coupler 402; PC—polarization controller 406; TGR—transmissiongrating 408; ASL—Air spaced lens 410; SiLC—Silicon CMOS line camera 412;50FC—50 mm fiber collimator 414; 10FC—10 mm fiber collimator 407, 409.There is a fiber-coupled superluminescent diode (SLD) 418, a customspectrometer, and fiber optic Michelson interferometer that can beinterfaced to a laser machining head through a camera port (moregenerally an optical access port). Imaging light from the SLD firstpasses through an optical isolator and/or circulator, which protects theSLD from back-reflection. The light continues into an evanescent modecoupler (beam splitter or beam combiner) where it is split into thesample and reference arms, then coupled out of the fiber and into freespace. Some light is retroreflected in both interferometer arms and thesignals are recombined and interfere at the mode coupler. Polarizationcontrollers correct for mismatches between the two interferometer armsarising from polarization effects in single mode fiber and also tooptimize diffraction grating efficiency. Polarization maintaining fibermay also be used together with or instead of polarization controllers. Atransmission grating is used in the spectrometer for ease of alignment.Finally, the camera measures the spectral interferogram and transmitsdata via IEEE-1394 to a desktop computer (or other processing platform,not shown) for processing.

The following is an example measurement of the performance of the systemof FIG. 14 .

TABLE 1 Calculated System Performance Characteristics Axial Resolution(μm) 12 Depth of Field (mm) 5.9 Maximum Line Rate (kHz) 27 Duty Cycle(IEEE-1394 interface limited) 0.73 Sensitivity (dB)*^(†) (35 μsintegration) 98 Sensitivity (dB)*^(†) (1 μs integration) 82 Sensitivity(dB)*^(†) (100 ns integration) 67 Max. Dynamic Range (dB)* 66 *Based onnoise specifications available for camera operating at low speed. Actualvalue is expected to be lower at full speed. ^(†)Assumes sample armoptics have ~80% efficiency

Some embodiments may have different speed, sensitivity, resolutionand/or dynamic range depending on the choice of components.

In some embodiments, a complete system would also include custominterfacing with machining heads for specific applications. This cangenerally be accomplished by modifying a camera port and choosing thecorrect dichroic optic to combine the imaging and machining light.Additionally, an appropriate focused beam diameter for the imaging beammay be chosen. In some implementations, the imaging and machining lightwill be focused by the same objective (though this is not necessary)whose focal length is predetermined by existing machining processdemands. Here, the choice and alignment of the sample arm collimator canbe used to give the desired focal characteristics for imaging.Collimator alignment can also be used to compensate for focal lengthvariation of the objective between imaging and machining light.

As an example application, a machining laser head with a 100 mm focusinglens is considered. To maintain uniform imaging over the depth of field,the collimator's focal length should be chosen so that the focusedimaging beam's Rayleigh range is approximately half the system's depthof field. For the setup described above, we choose a 10 mm collimatinglens and hence, expect a beam waist of 27 μm (1/e² intensity radius) anda Rayleigh range of 2.8 mm. Note that to achieve maximum axialresolution, proper compensation of dispersion mismatch between thesample and reference arms may be of use.

The design is flexible and can be modified to improve imaging rate (withan upgraded camera) or axial resolution. The latter is achieved byselecting a broader spectrum SLD (or other light source) and a gratingwith a reduced line density. This would provide significant resolutionimprovement with the drawback of reduced depth of field but little to noadditional monetary cost. For instance, substituting the currentcomponents with an 840±25 nm FWHM light source (Exalos EXS8410-F413)paired with a 1200 lines/mm grating (Edmund Optics NT48-589) couldprovide 6.2 μm resolution over a maximum range of 3 mm. Note that withhigher spectral bandwidths, proper dispersion mismatch compensation isimportant to achieve maximum resolution.

Note that in coherent imaging techniques such as this, if an interfacemoves by 414 or greater during the integration time of the detector, thefringe contrast will be significantly degraded (“washed out”), causingthe signal from that interface to vanish. This corresponds to an upperlimit to the interface speed that can be tracked. However, it also hasthe benefit of rejecting certain high-speed interfaces (e.g., ejecta)that would produce reflections that complicate the images and makeautomatic feedback more difficult. The maximum interface speed dependson the integration time of the detector, which in turn affectssensitivity. For an integration time of 35 μs, the system can trackinterfaces moving at speeds up to 0.006 m/s. For faster movinginterfaces, integration time can be reduced (at the expense ofsensitivity) to 1 μs or 100 ns to give maximum speeds of 0.21 m/s or 2.1m/s, respectively. Since this is faster than typical etch rates inindustrial processes, it is expected that this design will be adequatefor a wide range of applications. The use of line cameras with shorterintegration times, balanced photodetectors and/or swept sources mayallow even faster moving interfaces to be resolved.

Homodyne Depth Filtering

To use ICI as an automatic feedback method, processing is preferablyable to run at least as fast as data acquisition. In biological imaging,the interpolation and FFT operations are necessary to calculate thereflected intensity from all the depths within the FOV to form an image.By contrast, in feedback systems, the imaging output is used to triggera change in the material modification process as a function of theimaging output (e.g., terminate emission), for example once a certaindepth has been reached. In this case, calculating the reflectivity fromall the depths may be excessive. An efficient method for determiningwhen drilling has penetrated a prescribed depth is provided.

Starting with a desired depth, z, and using Equation for I(k) presentedabove with calibration data from the spectrometer, a syntheticinterferogram is pre-calculated, expressed in units of constant camerapixel number (or the basis that corresponds to the detection system).This calculation can be completed a priori and does not contribute tothe real-time computing load. Multiple such pre-calculated syntheticinterferograms may be generated and drawn (individually or otherwise)from a memory table to be used for different target results, forexample, achieving one of several possible depths, tracking the approachto a desired depth through a series of intermediate steps, removal ofmaterial from a specified depth, achieving more material at one depthcompared to another depth, or optimizing change in backscatter from atarget depth.

By homodyne mixing the synthetic interferogram with the raw data fromthe camera, the signal from the desired depth is extracted which mayhave significantly lower spurious side-lobe signal (from interpolationerrors) when compared to other methods known to those skilled in the artas shown in FIG. 20 . For each imaging output from the camera, the rawdata from the camera is multiplied by the synthetic interferogram pixelby pixel and then summed. When the desired depth is reached, the summedresult will have a peak.

Where it is desirable to combine the signal with multiple syntheticinterferograms, a matrix multiplication approach may be taken.

If data elements are transferred from the detector serially orquasi-serially (i.e., through multiple camera taps) then the receivingelectronics in some embodiments may begin calculations on the individualelements as soon as they become available in order to preserveprocessing resources such as memory and/or gates (such as on a fieldprogrammable gate array, FPGA) and to reduce the overall feedbacklatency.

To demonstrate, this filter technique is applied to the spectrometerdata used in FIG. 15 , choosing a 200 μm target depth (indicated by aline 100 in FIG. 15 ). The filter response shows a clear, high SNRresponse at the moment the machining front passes through the depth(FIG. 15 bottom).

The filter response is used to trigger a feedback response to stopdrilling, or to make some other change to a parameter of a materialmodification process. FIG. 16 is a flowchart of a method of automaticfeedback control, which can, for example be used to stop drilling, basedupon when a prescribed depth is reached. More complicated controlsystems with feedback from multiple depths and control of otherparameters of the process are also possible. In some embodiments, alook-up-table is employed to rapidly and dynamically change the depth(s)of interest (by selecting different pre-calculated syntheticinterferograms).

Depth filtering may achieve computational savings versus standardprocessing. The time required to process multiple blocks of 576 elementlines of previously acquired, raw experimental data with both ourstandard biological imaging code (background subtraction, cubic splineinterpolation, FFT, noise floor equalization) and with the homodynefilter is compared in Table 2. Processing was conducted with a singlethread running MATLAB on a quad-core Intel desktop CPU in a MicrosoftWindows 7 64-bit environment. The results in Table 2 are expressed interms of 10³ lines per second (klps) and the relative speed increasefactor obtained by using the homodyne filter.

TABLE 2 Comparison of processing speed for 4 × 10⁵ image lines HomodyneInterpolation + FFT filter (HF) Relative Block size (IF) speed speedspeed (A-lines) (klps) (klps) (HF/IF) 2 × 10⁵ 0.77 451.2 588 2 × 10⁴5.096 522.2 102 2 × 10³ 4.596 555.6 121 200 1.861 794.0 427  20 0.241746.0 3097

For very small and very large block sizes, the FFT method is very slow.This is a result of limitations specific to the hardware and softwareenvironment and not the computational complexity of the code. As aresult, the best theoretical comparison between the two methods is themid-size blocks. Here, even when the FFT produces its best results, thehomodyne filter still outperforms it by two orders of magnitude.

While the line period limits the raw throughput rate, it is only aminimum value for the total feedback latency. Interrupt latency andother delays inherent to desktop hardware and operating systems areadditive and may ultimately be the dominant terms. For this reason, thefull capabilities of ICI-based feedback potentially will not be realizedwithout the use of dedicated processing hardware in the form of a fieldprogrammable gate arrays (FPGAs) or application-specific integratedcircuits (ASICs). These components already exist in many modern cameras,including the one specified here. The ease of implementation of thehomodyne filter algorithm described here onboard a camera circumventsthe desktop PC bottleneck and allows the camera itself to discipline themachining system.

Imaging Below Surface

FIG. 17 is another example of a system featuring inline coherentimaging. This implementation features an optical fiber implementation ofICI. A broadband light source 500 injects light into the optical fiber502. An isolator blocks back reflections from reaching the light source.Optical coupler 504 splits the light into reference arm (top) 506 andsample arm 508 (bottom, to laser processing system). The ratio ofsplitting depends on the applications needs. An example would be 50:50(50% to the reference arm, 50% to the sample). The reference lighttravels along the reference arm and is back reflected. The path lengthof the reference arm can be set in coarse divisions, using variouslengths of optical fiber, and fine divisions using a mirror mounted on atranslation stage with micrometer control. Usually the reference armlength is set to match the optical path length to the workpiece in thelaser processing system, less approximately two hundred micrometers.Often it is convenient to put a focussing objective identical to the oneused in the laser processing platform before the reference mirror (notshown) in order to match dispersion and control reflected reference armpower. The reference arm contains optics 510, 512 that allow dispersionand polarization control. Dispersion control is done so both referenceand sample arm are close to dispersion matched. Polarization control isusually set so the reference and back reflection from the sample armhave similar polarization states (for maximum interference). Thereference arm also may include a controllable intensity attenuator (notshown) to control detector saturation and imaging dynamic range. Thiscan be accomplished by a variable neutral density filter, misalignmentof a fiber coupler, or translation of the focussing objective relativeto the end reference mirror (all not shown). The sample arm fiber exitsthe inline coherent imaging system and is connected to an external laserprocessing platform. Light backscatters off the workpiece and travelsback along the same fiber. The back-reflected reference light splits atthe optical coupler 504 so part of it is injected into the fiberconnected to the high-speed spectrometer 514 (amount depending on thecoupler splitting ratio). The backscattered sample light splits at theoptical coupler so part of it is injected into the fiber connected tothe high-speed spectrometer (amount depending on the coupler splittingratio). The sample and reference light interfere in the optical fiber516. The light is dispersed according to its wavelength in thespectrometer. The detector may be a spectrometer that measures intensityas function of wavelength. The position of the constructive anddestructive peaks contains information about the relative path length ofthe sample arm compared to the reference arm. If light is backscatteredsimultaneously from more than one depth in the sample arm (e.g., sidesof a laser keyhole), the strength and relative positions of all thedepths is encoded in the interferogram. The spectral interferogram(intensity as a function of wavelength) is converted into an electronicsignal by the detector and transmitted to control electronics 518 forprocessing. The electronic processing system controls the spectrometer(e.g., triggering) and processes the raw detector data. One processingtechnique (so-called standard OCT processing) is back subtraction, cubicspline interpolation for conversion from camera pixel number to constantfrequency step, fast Fourier transform to yield a graph of backscatteras a function of depth. If there is only one highly reflecting interfacein the sample arm, the resulting graph will have one strong peak withits width set by the axial resolution of the system. Axial resolution isinversely proportional to wavelength bandwidth measured by thespectrometer (thus the need for a broadband source to achieve highresolution). Alternatively, the homodyne filtering approach describedabove may be used for faster processing times and improved imagequality. In some embodiments, a feedback controller (part of or separatefrom electronic processing 518) generates feedback to control one ormore processing parameters of the material modification process.Examples have been provided above in the context of other embodiments.

FIG. 18 is a block diagram of an application of the ICI toforward-viewing guided laser surgery. Lasers are useful for tissueablation because the light can be focused very tightly, allowing thesurgeon to remove tissue in small volumes. While the light can bedelivered with high precision in the transverse dimensions, it isdifficult to control the final depth of the laser incision. Tissue canbe highly heterogeneous with a large variation in removal rate, makingtotal energy delivered not a good predictor of incision depth. FIG. 18shows a patient treatment area 600 that contains a volume of hard orsoft tissue that would usually be removed by mechanical methods (e.g.,drill). The ICI system measures incision depth as tissue is ablated, andterminates laser exposure at a predetermined depth. More importantly,when ICI is implemented using infrared light (˜1300 nm), imaging intothe tissue (beyond the ablation front) is possible. This allows exposureto be terminated before an interface is penetrated (and before theintense surgical laser can damage delicate subsurface tissue).

An inline coherent imaging system 602 is provided; this includes aninterferometer, broadband light source and spectrometer, and an exampleimplementation is depicted in FIG. 17 . The patent treatment area isindicated at 600. There is a surgical laser 604 which generates exposurecontrolled by a surgeon, and modified by feedback control. There is arobotic controlled focussing head 610 (but may be handheld in some otherembodiments) which combines imaging and surgical beam coaxially andcollects imaging light backscattered from the treatment area. In someembodiments, imaging and surgical laser light may be combined earlier inthe propagation path of the surgical laser such that imaging andsurgical light arrive pre-combined at the focussing head. The spectralinterferogram data from the ICI system 602 is passed to electronicprocessing 606 which generates the electronic feedback control for thesurgical laser and robotic controlled focussing head. In addition, anoutput is generated for an image display 608.

The beam from the sample arm of the ICI interferometer is set to becoaxial with the surgical laser 604. This can be done in free space withan appropriate dichroic mirror. This guarantees imaging is along thesame line as the surgical beam direction. The reference arm length isset so sample arm and reference arm are closely matched. The surgeon canuse the image display to image the target area (and below) before he/shestarts the surgical laser. The imaging system can also be used to finetune the position of the surgical laser using co-registration with otherimaging modalities (such as prerecorded MRI or CT). This would allow thesurgeon to look at a small volume of the treatment area in real-timeusing the ICI in the context of larger anatomical features. Theelectronic processing would do this co-registration. In addition, thesurgeon could have selected margins to be removed using the prerecordedimaging modalities.

Once the surgeon is certain that the surgical laser will target theright treatment area consistent with the treatment plan, he/she startsthe ablation process. The system can be programmed to terminate exposureafter a certain depth is cut, or to remain within a certain presetmargin, or to terminate exposure when ablation reaches a certaindistance to a selected interface. The ICI system can be used to providea permanent record of the treatment procedure, useful for postoperativeanalysis.

FIG. 19 is a block diagram of an application of the ICI for in situmetrology for laser welding. Laser welding provides narrow and deepwelds, well suited to automated and high volume manufacturing. Thediverse applications for laser welding have in common a process ofcontrolled heating by a laser to create a phase change localized to thebond region. Controlling this phase change region (PCR) can be used tocontrol the quality of the weld and the overall productivity of thewelding system. The high spatial coherence of laser light allows superbtransverse control of the welding energy. Axial control (depth of thePCR) and subsequent thermal diffusion are more problematic particularlyin thick materials. In these applications, the depth of the PCR isextended deep into the material (˜mm) using a technique widely known as“keyhole welding”. Here, the beam intensity is sufficient to melt thesurface to open a small vapor channel (also known as a capillary or “thekeyhole”) which allows the optical beam to penetrate deep into thematerial. Depending on the specific application, the keyhole is narrow(<mm) but several millimetres deep and sustained with the application ofas much as ˜10⁴ W of optical power.

In FIG. 19 , an inline coherent imaging system 702 is provided; thisincludes an interferometer, broadband light source and spectrometer, andan example implementation is depicted in FIG. 17 . The welding platformis indicated at 700. There is a welding laser 704 which generates awelding beam controlled by a welding controller 705, taking into accountfeedback control. A focussing objective 703 combines imaging and weldingbeam for delivery to a welding work piece 701 and collects imaging lightbackscattered from the welding area. There may be additional weldinginputs such as assist gas, an electrical arc, additive material etc. Thespectral interferogram data from the ICI system 702 is passed toelectronic processing 706 which generates the electronic feedbackcontrol for the welding controller 704. In addition, an output isgenerated for an image display 708. In this case, the ICI system 702 isconnected to a welding platform camera port 718 through a fiber tofree-space coupler 720.

To measure keyhole formation in real time, the sample arm of the ICIimaging system 702 is set to be coaxial and/or near coaxial with thewelding laser beam, to be focussed in the PCR. This can be done bycollimating the image beam and directing it into the welding platformcamera port. The ICI system is used to monitor the depth of the keyholeformed, ensuring that it is appropriate depth for welding all theworkpieces. In pulsed laser welding, the ICI system can be run at amultiple of the repetition rate of the welding laser, providing imagesfrom before, during and after laser exposure. This provides directinformation on the creation of the vapour channel, and its subsequentrefilling. With continuous-wave welding sources, the ICI system canmonitor keyhole stability directly. Feedback from this information canbe used to optimise welding parameters (such as laser intensity, feedrate, and assist gas), to increase keyhole stability.

The image display 708 shows the operator real time information aboutkeyhole penetration and stability as welding is in process, and providesa permanent record of the weld creation, situated to the exact region onthe workpiece. This can be important for later quality assurance.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a fiber-based ICI in whicha common dielectric objective is used to combine the imaging light andthe laser light. Such an embodiment, optionally, includes a feedbackcontroller, for example as defined in any of the other embodimentsdescribed previously.

Other embodiments combining, mixing or interchanging the fundamentaldesign elements described herein can be possible and will be evident topersons skilled in the art. These include, but are not limited to,imaging from other directions (i.e., not in-line with the modificationbeam) including the underside of the material being modified.

Engineering the Sensitivity Vs. Depth to Manage Dynamic Range

ICI differs from other forms of coherent imaging (such as OCT) in theway information from the intensity of the reflected light is used. InOCT imaging applications, it may be desirable to have a very flatsensitivity vs. depth relationship in order to maintain even contrastand visibility over the entire image. In ICI, one is primarilyinterested in locating optically reflective (e.g., metallic) surface(s)and so even contrast over the entire image is not as important as inOCT.

In some embodiments, steps are taken to engineer the sensitivity vs.depth function of the imaging system to attenuate bright reflectionsrelative to the weaker ones and extend the overall dynamic range. ICImay benefit from such an extended dynamic range due to the highlyvariable reflectivity of materials in different orientations.Reflections may be strongly generated from an interface, or they may beweakly generated. There may be multiple surface and internalreflections, at varying heights. It is possible to configure theoperation of an ICI based system to be more sensitive in regions ofinterest where it is expected that reflections may be weaker.

For example, when using an ICI system such as the one shown in FIG. 5 ,the periphery of a machined feature may naturally reflect more lightinto the imaging system than the bottom of a hole. Therefore strongersignals may be anticipated from shallower depths. If the imaging systemis configured for maximum sensitivity (in order to optimize its abilityto detect the bottom of the hole), then there may be a risk ofsaturating the detector with the much stronger signals originating atthe top of the hole.

In some embodiments, the sensitivity vs. depth is managed by locatingthe zero optical path length difference point below the area of interestin the sample instead of above it. This can be accomplished byincreasing the length of the reference arm and updating the output ofthe imaging system to reflect the fact that shallower depths are nowindicated by increasing fringe frequencies. The location of the zerooptical path length difference point inside the material is demonstratedpictorially in FIGS. 21 and 23 . In FIG. 21 , the zero optical pathlength difference point D is set to be below the sample, and inparticular below reflectors at A, B and C. Similarly, in FIG. 23 , thezero optical path length difference point B is below the weld pool. Inother implementations the zero optical path length difference point isconfigured to be located at a depth that is below the material beingmeasured.

This approach utilizes the natural sensitivity vs. depth behaviour ofthe system (which, due to finite spectral resolution in the detector,tends to decrease with increasing path length difference) to counteractthe natural sample reflectivity (which tends to decrease with depth). Inthis way, deeper structures in the sample (which tend to reflect less)are detected with greater sensitivity relative to superficial structures(which tend to reflect more). An additional advantage of this practiceis that smoke, plasma, debris and other sources of light scatteringproximal to the imaging system appear deeper in the image, areattenuated and do not wrap into the region of interest due to complexconjugate ambiguity. This differs from the teachings of art in themedical imaging field (e.g., optical coherence tomography) where complexconjugate ambiguity makes it undesirable to place the zero optical pathlength difference point inside or in some instances below, the sample.

In some embodiments, the zero optical path length difference point islocated above the area of interest.

In some embodiments, the sensitivity vs. depth is managed by usingTalbot band techniques to tailor the sensitivity vs. depth curve, forexample, as demonstrated by Woods and Podoleanu. See Woods et al.(Optics Express 16:9654-9670 (2008)); Podoleanu (Optics Express15:9867-9876 (2007)); Podoleanu et al. (Optics Letters 32:2300-2302(2007)), all hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. Thisapproach allows for strong, adjustable attenuation of superficialreflectors and can be used to diminish bright surface reflections thatmay saturate the detector.

In some embodiments, the sensitivity vs. depth is managed by usingnonlinear time gating, for example, as demonstrated by Muller et al.(Optics Letters 32:3336 (2007)), hereby incorporated by reference in itsentirety. This approach utilizes nonlinear sum frequency generation todefine a depth window of high sensitivity with reduced sensitivityoutside it. With the window placed near sites of weak reflections,superficial reflections are diminished and prevented from saturating thedetector.

In some embodiments, the sensitivity vs. depth is managed by accessingthe analog fringe signal before final digitization, for example in aswept source imaging system, and then using direct hardware demodulationand/or filtering to attenuate certain fringe frequencies that correspondto depths where high reflectivity is expected while retainingsensitivity at depths where the signal is weaker. This can beaccomplished by adding digital and/or analog filter elements to thesignalling line between the detector and the image processor.

Four specific approaches to managing the sensitivity vs. depth have beendescribed. In some embodiments, a combination of two, three or all fourof the approaches are implemented. In addition, while described in thecontext of the embodiment of FIG. 5 , it should be understood that anyone or any combination of two or more of these approaches may be appliedin conjunction with any of the other embodiments described or claimedherein.

Observation and Process Development of Laser Welding

In some embodiments, an apparatus such as the one shown in FIG. 14 isinterfaced via the camera port or some other suitable optical access tothe beam line inside a laser welding beam delivery system. The imagingand welding laser beams are combined with a dichroic mirror and focusedthrough a common objective.

In some embodiments, this apparatus is applied to observe laser weldingprocesses, such as keyhole welding processes, in some embodiments withfeedback to the welding processes, and in some embodiments without anyfeedback to the welding processes.

In any of the embodiments of ICI described herein featuring feedback,the operation of closed loop feedback may be achieved using a feedbackcontrol law, or a selected one of a plurality of feedback control laws.

In any of the embodiments of ICI described herein featuring feedback,the material modification process may be configured to be able tooperate using a selected one of a plurality of control laws, at leastsome of which are feedback control laws, and at least one of which is anopen loop control law. In some embodiments, a hybrid control law is usedthat is open loop some of the time, and closed loop some of the time.Open loop mode may, for example, be achieved by selecting a control lawwhich stipulates zero feedback data. It may be desired by an operator tonot effect closed loop control for a variety of reasons. It isunderstood in the art that a control law for effecting a desired outcomecan vary significantly dependant upon the goals of the operation. Forexample, it may be desired to measure using ICI the extent to whichuncontrolled laser welding causes weld defects. By selecting a controllaw which stipulates zero feedback data, the system would be forced tooperate as if there were no control. Thus ICI could be used tocharacterize and measure the performance of a standard laser weldingsystem where, in a standard system, ICI based control would otherwisenot be available. In other embodiments, it may be desired to effect acontrol law whereby the weld depth was modulated between a deeperpenetration level, and a shallower penetration level. In otherembodiments, it may be desired to effect a control law whereby only theworst case bounds of weld depth penetration were limited, allowing foropen loop operation at times, and depth controlled operation only whenpenetration depth approached the limits of the control range.

By measuring the location reflectivity from the bottom of the keyhole(or other welding outcome) produced by the welding beam, a measure ofthe depth of the laser keyhole (or other welding outcome) can beproduced. In some implementations, this might be achieved at rates up toand exceeding 300 kHz. This is a close approximation of the full depthof the laser weld. Pulsed laser welding experiments were performed whileobserving with an inline coherent imaging system like the one shown inFIG. 5 , but with the feedback controller deactivated. It was found thatthe depth indicated by the ICI system during the process closely matchesthe depth of the weld seam that is revealed by cross sectioning,polishing and etching (the analysis procedures that are used by those ofskill in the art). ICI data could therefore reduce or eliminate the needfor this costly and destructive analysis step. Furthermore, such ICIdata could also accelerate process development and provide 100% weldinspection and a permanent diagnostic record of the weld by storing theimaging data on a storage medium such as a hard disk drive or solidstate disk. Feedback from ICI can lead to more productive weldingequipment and enable laser welding where it was not possible oreconomical before.

This is because real time feedback provided by the imaging system may beused to change process variables in a way that compensates forvariations in feedstock (e.g., poor fit up) and instabilities (e.g.,variable weld depth) in the process as it is accelerated to higherspeeds and/or pushed to greater depths. This may extend the usability oflaser welding systems to include lower cost input feedstock, higherprocessing speeds and/or deeper penetration while maintaining acceptablequality.

The transient effects during the start or finish of a welding proceduremay have a negative effect on the outcome of a weld (e.g., inconsistentseam depth, e.g., underfill). In one embodiment, feedback provided bythe imaging system may be used to reduce these defects by controllingone or more process parameters to compensate for the transient behaviourof the weld at its start, at its finish or both. In a specific example,the system described in FIG. 5 measures the depth of the welding keyholethroughout a lap weld of two plates of steel. At the beginning of theweld, the imaging data indicates that the keyhole has not penetrated tothe selected welding depth. This data is processed by the feedbackcontroller with a result of slowing the material feed rate relative tothe processing beam. This has the effect of allowing the keyhole topenetrate closer to the selected depth than it would have if noadjustment to the speed had been made.

Multiplexing the Imaging System

In some embodiments, a single machining laser (more generally a singleprocessing beam source) is used to process multiple samples in multipleprocessing locations, and the machining laser may be paired with one ormore ICI systems. This may make better use of the relatively expensivemachining laser, and makes better use of the ICI system's capabilities.In these situations, the sampled data from the set of samples iscoordinated with the directivity of the machining laser, such thatsampled data may be associated with a specific sample.

In some embodiments, a single reference arm, and a respective sample armis used with a precisely matched propagation delay. An example of thisis depicted in FIG. 25A. A unique challenge however, from theperspective of multiplexed ICI functionality, is the ability to matchthe overall propagation delay between the set of processing locationssuch that a single fixed reference arm could be used. This challengestems from the fact that runs of optical fibre may be long and themultiplexor may add a different (e.g., variable) delay for eachmultiplexed channel.

In some embodiments, rather than using matched sample arm paths, adynamic optical path switch in the reference path is made at the sametime as the main processing beam path is switched. This approach allowsfor an optimized reference path for each sample and the freedom tolocate the reference arms away from any vibrations at the processinglocation (e.g., on the robot). An example of this is depicted in FIG.25B. Here, the reference multiplexer is used to switch between variousfixed reference arms. Alternatively some other kind of variablereference arm may be employed. In some embodiments, separate referencearms are provided at each processing location. Sample and reference armsare connected to one side of a 2×2 evanescent mode coupler and theconnections from the other side are multiplexed (i.e., switch orselector) from each processing location to the common illumination anddetection channels. These channels are not sensitive to optical pathlength in most practical cases. This approach also minimizes opticallosses. Optical shutters may also be used in the sample and referencearms as an alternative or in addition to an optical switch, selector ormultiplexer. The operation of all dynamic elements are coordinated withthe timing of the main processing beam directivity to properly isolateany undesired optical reflection signals. An example of this approach isdepicted in FIG. 25C.

In some embodiments, the illumination and detection channels areconnected to one side of a 2×1 evanescent mode coupler, the output ofwhich is multiplexed to the different processing locations where it isconnected to one side of a 1×2 evanescent mode coupler whose two outputsare connected to a separate reference arm and the sample arm. Thisapproach eliminates the complexity and expense of needing two opticalmultiplexors. Optical shutters may also be used in the sample andreference arms as an alternative or in addition to an optical switch,selector or multiplexer The operation of all dynamic elements iscoordinated with the timing of the main processing beam directivity toproperly isolate any undesired optical reflection signals. An example ofthis approach is depicted in FIG. 25D.

In FIGS. 25A, 25B, 25C and 25D, each cell is a different laserprocessing location. “Laser Cell” is a common term in the industry thatdescribes an enclosed area in which material is processed. 50:50splitters are depicted here, but other splitting ratios may be used toadjust the dynamic range and sensitivity of the system.

In some embodiments of the invention, the reference arm is configuredsuch that the path length of the reference arm is adjustable, in somecases during operation of the system, or alternatively while the systemis not operating. An adjustable reference arm allows for simpleroperation of the system as the reference arm path length could be tunedas needed. Correspondingly, in some embodiments, adjustability of thepath length on the primary path is provided. An adjustable reference armmay be used, for example, for one or more of:

compensate for motion in the sample;

adjust the area of interest in the sample to a higher or lower area;

measure multiple samples in a switched or multi arm ICI system;

easily and quickly configure the ICI system in a surgical context.

An adjustable optical reference arm may be achieved by using astretchable optical media, using motorized free space reflector andcoupling apparatus, or using multi-reflection mirror mechanism to name afew specific examples.

Manual or automatic adjustment of adjustable optical path lengthelements may be performed during operation of the ICI system. Suchadjustment would be beneficial in order to allow an ability to adjusthow ICI images are captured during run time of the system.

In some embodiments, the ICI system is used to track a location of aninternal reflective interface, or some other point of interest that maychange over time. Then, optical path length in the reference or samplearm are adjusted such that the location of the internal reflectiveinterface (or some other point of interest) becomes the zero opticalpath length difference point, such that the zero optical path lengthdifference point is dynamically determined. Alternatively, the zerooptical path length difference point can be selected to have a desiredrelative position to the location of the internal reflective interface(or other point of interest).

Imaging Breakthrough/Refill after Breakthrough

Lasers are commonly used to perforate metals, polymers, tissue andceramic and other materials in processes like percussion drilling andtrepan drilling. In some embodiments, ICI systems are used to performone or a combination of:

tracking the bottom of a hole during drilling;

controlling the speed of perforation;

observing the point when the material is perforated;

anticipating the point in time at which the laser will perforate thematerial;

adjusting the laser process to avoid damage to surfaces below the newhole;

confirming that the hole is not refilled after the laser is turned off;

controlling drilling, cutting or welding to a selected depth;

controlling drilling, cutting or welding to a selected depth relative toa selected material interface; and

generating an indication of impending breakthrough in a process of laserdrilling, laser cutting or laser welding.

Advantageously, ICI systems are able to perform these functions withoutphysical access to the distal side of the part being perforated. This isa considerable advantage over many existing breakthrough detectiontechniques.

By way of example, the ICI system shown in FIG. 14 can be interfaced toa laser drilling system via a camera port or other suitable opticalaccess to the beam line where it is combined with the processing beam byway of a dichroic mirror. To demonstrate its ability to track the bottomof the hole during drilling and observe breakthrough, individual 5 mspulses of 1070 nm light were applied to steel foils with thickness of102 micrometers. The imaging and drilling foci were previously alignedusing a CMOS detector array. Perforation could be controlled with theapplied pulse energy and oxygen assist gas pressure. M-mode images fromthree example experiments are shown in FIG. 22 . FIG. 22 shows ICIimages from single pulse (5 ms duration indicated by vertical red lines)oxygen assisted percussion drilling in stainless steel foils. Thehorizontal dashed line indicates the thickness of the foil. In tile “a”of FIG. 22 , a 77 mJ pulse fails to perforate the foil, but the foil isnearly perforated (within approximately 15 um) before the drilling pulseends and the hole refills with melt. In tile “b”, a 77 mJ pulse brieflyperforates the foil very close to the end of the drilling pulse. At thispoint, assist gas begins to clear the hole leaving several hundredmicroseconds after the pulse where little signal is registered by theICI system. After this period, the hole does refill as indicated by thesignature of a single interface at or near the original surface depth.In tile “c”, a stronger drilling pulse is used causing the hole to beperforated in a few milliseconds. More specifically, increasing thepulse energy to 100 mJ creates a hole in ˜3.5 ms that remains open afterthe pulse. Since the drilling pulse has held the hole open long enoughfor the assist gas to clear the peripheral melt, the hole does notrefill and this is indicated by the ICI image, confirming that asuccessful perforation has been made. These interpretations areconfirmed by measurements of optical power transmitted through the foiland detected with a high speed photodiode. The presence of a signaloriginating from the depth of the distal wall of the material beingperforated after the drilling has finished could indicate the presenceof dross and or that the exit hole diameter is comparable to that of theimaging beam focus.

With the use of a feedback processor such as the one detailed in FIG. 5, an ICI system can control the rate of perforation by signalling achange in process parameters (e.g., pulse energy) based on the processedinterferometry signals it measures. Similarly, upon detection ofbreakthrough, the feedback processor can signal for the drilling laserto stop, optionally after a selected overdrilling period. This has animportant feature of being able to reduce the probability of “back wallstrike”-type damage to materials present on the distal side of thematerial being perforated. This capability is a considerable advantageprovided by ICI systems in application areas such as the fabrication ofcooling holes in gas turbines.

This signature of breakthrough is different in different materials. Inmetal, it may be observed that immediately before perforation, anapparent acceleration in the penetration rate of the drilling laseroccurs.

This can be used as a signature to indicate imminent perforation andallow preparations to be made to halt or otherwise change the processnear the point of perforation. If the process is halted immediatelybefore perforation, chemical (e.g., light acid etch) or other proceduremay be used to complete the hole. Furthermore, flow of liquid andsubsequent obstruction of the hole after fusion can be observed. ICIsystems may be used to generate a record of these events, and/or togenerate an alarm, annunciation, warning, and/or to requisitionadditional processing to clear the hole.

In another embodiment, an ICI system is used to control laser drillingof printed circuit board vias and/or trench cutting in printed circuitboards. One skilled in the art will know that these structures are oftenformed through penetration of one or more layers of conductive and/orinsulating material. ICI image processors are capable of determining howdeeply the materials have been penetrated by the process and theproximity of the process to the various layers of material.Specifically, in the imaging data subsurface layers may be identifiedduring drilling by their tendency to appear to rise in the image asnoted by label AI in FIG. 11B. Simultaneously, the bottom of the holeappears to fall (MF). The subsurface layer is perforated when these twosignatures meet as demonstrated in FIG. 11A at point P. This feature(which we refer to here as a “scissor feature”) and its precursors (suchas the features highlighted by MF and AI in FIG. 11B) have substantialutility for feedback control in many applications which, in variousembodiments include, but are not limited to, cutting, drilling, lasersurgery and any other material removal technique in semi- and/orfully-transparent media. Detecting scissor features and their precursorsallows the image processor and/or the feedback controller to start,stop, slow and/or accelerate the drilling process by effecting changesto one or more process variables and/or guide the material modificationprocess to locations relative to subsurface features in the materialbeing modified, even if such features were not characterized prior tothe commencement of processing. These capabilities are advantageousbecause they allow for faster and/or more accurate overall processing ofa material. In some embodiments, ICI imaging data provides guidance toselected surgical margins about tissue(s) that are sensitive to laserdamage, thus it enables safer laser surgical procedures that could notbe easily performed without its benefits.

In another embodiment, an ICI system is used to detect breakthrough of awelding beam and the gap between the two materials in real time during awelding process. This information is interpreted by the electronics. Insome embodiments, a signal output is generated for receipt by anoperator and/or additional process control electronics. For example, theICI system shown in FIG. 14 can be interfaced with the beam deliverysubsystem (via a camera port/other optical access and a dichroic mirror)of a laser keyhole welding machine applied for lap welding two sheets ofmetal together (see FIG. 22 ). In this example process, it is desired todetermine when the weld penetrates the first material (F), the fit up ofthe two surfaces (A) at the point of penetration and the furtherpenetration of the weld into the second material (D). By adjusting thelength of the reference arm (416), the zero optical path lengthdifference point B is located slightly below (a sufficient distancebelow such that complex conjugate ambiguity artifacts in the image donot occur) the expected maximum penetration depth of the weld. This isuseful to enhance deeper signals from within the material because deeperfeatures naturally reflect less light into the imaging system and thesystem is more sensitive at shorter optical path differences.

The imaging system has a single sided field of view range represented by“E”. As the material is penetrated, a signal begins to be registered asthe proximal material is penetrated to depth C and enters the field ofview. As the process reaches depth F, the imaging system may register anacceleration of penetration as the distal wall of the proximal materialloses its mechanical strength and deforms. As the distal wall ispenetrated at depth F, its signal is attenuated or it vanishescompletely indicating breakthrough. At this point, the imaging systemregisters a reflection from the proximal wall of the distal material.The difference in axial position from these two reflections indicatesthe welding gap/fit up of the two pieces (A) of material which is anoutput that can be displayed, stored and/or relayed to a feedbackcontroller. As the process beam continues to penetrate into the distalmaterial, depth may be imaged as before and so the final depth of theweld inside the distal material can also be measured, displayed,recorded on a storage medium and/or relayed to a feedback controller.

In addition, while described in the context of the embodiment of FIG. 14, it should be understood that any one or any combination of two or moreof these approaches may be applied in conjunction with any of the otherembodiments described or claimed herein. This approach can be applied toembodiments with or without feedback.

Intentionally Defocused/Large Imaging Beam to Determine Lowest orHighest Depth within a Region

In some embodiments, the ICI system is configured such that the imagingbeam illuminates an area or volume of the sample that encompassesmultiple reflective features of the sample that are at different axialheights, or different transverse displacements relative to the centeraxis of the imaging beam, or any combination thereof. In some instances,the reflective features of the sample may be entirely on the surface ofthe sample. In other instances, the reflective features may be relatedto internal structures, interfaces, objects or other reflective elementsof the sample. This allows for the simultaneous detection of multiplefeature heights within the illuminated area or volume of the imagingbeam which may be measured without the need for transverse scanning oran additional QA step after processing. In some embodiments of theinvention, significant efficiency may be obtained when the imaging beamis delivered coaxially with an optional sample processing beam.

As a specific example, in one embodiment, an ICI system such as the onedepicted in FIG. 14 is connected to an optical access port on the laserbeam delivery system for a device that produces dimples in metals. Inthis embodiment, the sample arm collimator's (407 in FIG. 14 ) focallength is chosen to be short in order to produce a small imaging beamdiameter inside the delivery head before it reaches the focusingobjective (not shown). The imaging and processing beams are combined byway of a dichroic mirror. In this example, the processing beam may, forexample, be a carbon dioxide laser, a Nd:YAG laser, a fibre laser or anyother laser capable of producing dimples in metals. For this example, itis assumed that the sample arm has a sample arm collimator lens and asample arm objective (that also functions as the objective for themodification laser) such as depicted in the embodiment of FIG. 5 (seeelements 351 and 314). At the sample, the imaging beam has anapproximate diameter equal to the product of the mode field diameter ofthe imaging fiber (the fiber between elements 402 and fiber collimator409 of the reference arm 416)) and the ratio of the sample objectivelens:sample arm collimator lens focal lengths (lens 314, 353 of FIG. 5). For a typical mode field diameter of 5 um and a sample objectivefocal length of 100 mm, a sample arm collimator focal length of 5 mmwould produce a 100 um diameter spot on the sample. Additionally, thesample spot diameter can be further modified by varying the distancebetween the sample arm collimator lens and the fiber tip, but this maynot result in optimal light collection efficiency.

When the imaging beam reaches the sample, portions of the beam areback-reflected from a plurality of depths. These reflections arereceived by the imaging system and create an interferometry output basedon their optical path length. This output is detected and electronicallyprocessed by a signal processor device by way of algorithms such as thehomodyne filter algorithm, or some combination of Fourier transformswith spectral reshaping as necessary, interpolative resampling asnecessary, Kaiser-Bessel filtering (e.g., Vergnole et al., OpticsExpress 18:10446-61 (2010), hereby incorporated by reference in itsentirety) and generate a representation of the reflectivity of thesample as a function of one or more depths. This measurement can beacquired at rates in excess of 300 kHz using available detectortechnology. Image processing rates in excess of 600 kHz have beenachieved by processing the image data on graphics processor units. Insome embodiments, this technique is applied to real-time processcontrol.

In the specific example of laser created dimples, these structures areutilized to create a gap between two plates that are later lap weldedtogether. The height of the dimple above the original surface is animportant indicator of the gap that is to be expected during thesubsequent welding process. Dimples are often created in groups of twoor more. In some embodiments, using in-situ measurement of the finaldimple geometry, detected inadequacies in dimple heights are fed fromthe image processing system to a feedback controller (such as in FIG. 5) to cause a change in the dimple formation process parameters.

FIG. 21 shows an example of an imaging beam that is applied to thesample such that its diameter is larger than a feature of interest.Reflections are measured from several depths in the sample (A-C). Thesedepths may be simultaneously measured in a single optical acquisition(axial scan also called A-scan). When the imaging beam is deliveredcoaxially with the beam used to process these features, it can rapidlymeasure the height and depth of the features without the need for anadditional measurement step. The representation of the reflectivity ofthe sample as a function of one or more depths is shown schematically onthe right hand side of FIG. 21 . It can be seen that there is arespective peak in the A-scan intensity that represent each of A: heightof dimple tip, B: height of virgin surface, and C: height of dimpletrough. The above-discussed height of the dimple is represented by A-B.Other surfaces at other heights in the feature may generate a signaturein the A-scan, but these have been omitted in FIG. 21 for clarity.

In addition, while described in the context of the embodiment of FIG. 14, it should be understood that any one or any combination of two or moreof these approaches may be applied in conjunction with any of the otherembodiments described or claimed herein. This approach can be applied toembodiments with or without feedback control.

In FIG. 21 , the previously introduced practice of placing the zerooptical path length difference point (D) inside the material beingmeasured is also demonstrated. If the reflection from depth A is muchbrighter than depth C, then this configuration improves image qualitysince spectral domain coherent imaging systems typically registerreflections from larger optical path differences with less sensitivitythereby shifting the dynamic range of the imaging system and reducingpotential saturation.

The methods described herein to measure surface feature heights on asample may also be used to measure heights of features below the surfaceof the sample, as shown by way of example in FIG. 26 . In someembodiments, this can be an effective way to characterize material inthe immediate region of the processing beam. In some embodiments, thismethod may be used to align a processing beam.

Implementation Example Showing Verification of Drilling Control

Using the fully automatic depth control provided by the inline coherentimaging system shown in FIG. 5 , 14 holes were drilled at depths thatvary steadily by 30 micrometer from hole to hole. The homodyne filteralgorithm running on a PC (one embodiment of image processingelectronics, 332) was used to efficiently process the raw imaging datafrom the silicon line camera (330) and make a determination as towhether further machining laser exposure was required to achieve thedesired depth. A user programmed the desired depth(s) for the series ofholes into the PC. The PC read this programming and synthesized theappropriate homodyne waveforms to mix with the raw imaging data toobtain the sample reflectivity at the target depth. Through the courseof drilling the hole, when a selected threshold was met from thehomodyne output (in this case, 5 times the RMS intensity of the noisefloor), the PC signals the feedback controller (334) to cease theprocess. In this embodiment, the feedback controller consisted of adigital output subsystem of the PC (National Instruments PCI-6229) and afunction generator (Tektronix AFG3022B). This feedback controllerdirected a modulated CW fiber laser (320) to emit pulses (duration onthe order of 100 microseconds) that drill the sample. This system iscapable of producing an open loop feedback response time better than 300microseconds.

To confirm the result, a separate scanning optical coherence tomographysystem was used to measure the topology of the processed sample. Alignedto scan within the plane in which the holes were drilled, the systemmeasures the depth of the drilled holes. The resulting image is depictedin FIG. 24 , and shows 14 holes with depths that vary steadily by 30micrometers from hole to hole.

Scanner Correction

In some embodiments, the imaging and processing beams may be directedtowards the sample by way of active scanning optics and a lens. As oneof normal skill in the art would appreciate, scanning the processingbeam allows for fast and precise movement of the optical focus which isdesirable for many material processing applications (e.g., automotivewelding). The inclusion of scanners in the material processor subsystemsof ICI augments scanned material processing with some or all of the manyadvantages of ICI systems described herein. The scanning optics/lenscombination may cause modulations in the optical path length to thematerial as the beams are scanned from one place to another that, in oneexample, cause a flat surface to appear curved. Managing thesemodulations optically may relax design requirements for depth field ofview and/or for more computationally efficient feedback calculationswithin the ICI system. In some applications, modulations can be manageddigitally by applying a depth offset (e.g., within the image and/orfeedback processors) that is correlated with the scan optic position.

In one embodiment, the path length modulations are substantiallycompensated for by adjusting the reference arm length by an amount equalto or approximating the expected and/or measured modulation generated byscan position. Such an adjustment could be by way of a motorizedtranslation stage, a piezoelectric element, stretching the sample orreference fiber, an electromagnetic solenoid or voice coil and/or byincluding several reference mirrors that can be introduced or removedfrom the reference arm beam path. Additional adjustment can be includedin the image processing step by adding a digital offset to the reporteddepth measurement equal to the desired correction. In some embodiments,the path length modulations present are directly measured for the entirearea and/or path to be processed on the sample by the imaging componentsof ICI. This may be accomplished by, for example, placing virginfeedstock in the processing system and recording ICI data as the opticsare scanned through the motion paths that are to be used when processingthe material. The difference between the surface topology indicatedand/or tracked in this data and the known surface topology of the samplemay be used as a correction function for optical and/or digitalmanagement of the scan-induced optical path length modulations.

The imaging system collects data during this program noting the locationof the virgin surface. It may be advantageous to use the path lengthadjusting hardware in the sample and/or reference arms to follow thevirgin surface if its path length changes by more than the total axialfield of view of the system. Iterative adjustment of the correction canbe made until the level of the virgin surface appears sufficiently flatfor use of image processing algorithms while the scan program executes.

The transverse scan position of a focused beam through a scan lensapproximates the product of the lens effective focal length and the scanangle expressed in radians. The chromatic aberration (i.e., focal lengthchanges as a function of wavelength) of the lens may cause a transversespatial walkoff between the imaging and processing beams as they arescanned across the material if both beams are introduced into the lensat the same scan angle. In some embodiments, the imaging beam's scanangle may be pre-corrected before being combined with the process beamby adding small angular deviations to the imaging beam usinggalvanometers or other active elements inserted into the imaging beampath between the sample collimator. These active elements would becontrolled to be synchronized with the main scanning optics that scanthe combined beams. Verification of this correction can be accomplishedby focusing both beams onto a CCD or CMOS detector array or other beamprofiling equipment such as a PRIMES FocusMonitor.

Low coherence interferometry can also be performed with a spectrallyswept optical source (called “swept source”, “optical frequency domainimaging” and/or sometimes “Fourier domain mode-locked”) configurationsinstead, or in addition to spectrometer-based (called “spectral” or“Fourier domain”) configurations. These approaches are distinguished andcompared by Choma et al. (Optics Express 11:2183-9 (2003) herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety). It is understood that eitheror both of these approaches may be used with any of the inline coherentimaging systems described and claimed herein. Persons of normal skillwill further appreciate that these two approaches (when used together orseparately) respond differently to motion present in the sample asdiscussed by Yun et al. (Optics Express 12:2977-2998 (2008) herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety). The use of one or acombination of these techniques in ICI embodiments is selected based thespeed of the moving objects (see Yun et al.), the need for isolation ofthe imaging sensors from optical emissions from the process(spectrometer detection is advantageous here), the imaging rate(currently, swept sources may image more rapidly than spectrometers asdiscussed by Wieser et al. (Optics Express 18:14685-704 (2010) herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety), and the overall cost andcomplexity of the device (currently, swept sources are relativelycomplex and expensive and the cost of using both techniques isadditive).

FIG. 27 is a schematic block diagram of another embodiment. Shown is amodification laser (ML) that generates a modification beam that passesthrough a fiber and lens on the way to a dichroic mirror (DM) where itis combined with an imaging beam from ICI optics module. The combinedbeams are now substantially co-axial. They are reflected by a mirrorthrough a common objective lens in the nozzle to the sample. Imaginglight reflected off the sample passes back to the ICI optics module. TheICI Optics module has an output to an ICI processor controller whichgenerates an automatic feedback control for the ML, and which moregenerally generates a control signal to control at least one processingparameter.

In the embodiment of FIG. 27 , the ICI system is comprised of twoelements; an ICI optics module and an ICI processor/controller. The ICIoptics module comprises the electro optical elements of the ICI system,and interfaces optically with the nozzle of a laser material processingsystem, and interfaces electrically with the ICI processor/controller.The ICI processor/controller is responsible for the processing of imagedata, and for generation of control signals for the operation of themachining laser. The ICI modules may be combined together, or may becombined with other elements of the system.

In another embodiment of the invention, the ICI system may optionally beconfigured to interface with additional system elements, as is shown inFIG. 28 . The ICI processor/controller may also interface electricallywith a laser controller, and may provide control signals to the lasercontroller for the operation of the machining laser. The ICIprocessor/controller may interface with the other aspects of the overalllaser material processing system, referred to as “bulk of system controland management”. These additional system aspects may include materialcontrol, feed control, nozzle position control, gas flow control, andother aspects as may be required in an individual implementation.

Additional similar embodiments may be considered to incorporateoperation with multiple samples and nozzles and/or different numbers ofturning mirrors in the nozzle and/or different ordering of turningmirrors in the nozzle. These would be considered as equivalent to one ofnormal skill in the art.

To enable fully automatic feedback in pulsed laser machining, inlinecoherent imaging is used to output appropriate information to aspecially designed image processor and feedback controller. For example,in some embodiments, the imaging window of the inline coherent imagingsystem is synchronized to a specific time delay relative to thebeginning of the material modification optical pulse. The optimal delaydepends on the kind of feedback that is desired as well as theobjectives of the material modification process. Feeding back off theintrapulse (i.e., while the material modification source light isincident on the material) measurements yields a different result thanafter the material has relaxed. Intrapulse feedback may be used tocontrol the total depth of penetration of the material modificationprocess. In particular, intrapulse feedback benefits from very fastfeedback response (response times on the order of 1-100 microseconds)for good accuracy because of the speed at which the processing beam maymodify the material. Feedback from later times (i.e., when the materialmodification light source is not incident on the sample) is used tocontrol the final morphology of the hole where the relaxed geometry ofthe sample (e.g., metal) is of concern.

In embodiments that use a quasicontinuous material modification lightsource, synchronization of the imaging system to the start of thematerial modification process is important for automatic feedback. Insome embodiments, image acquisition of the sample before materialmodification begins is useful for allowing feedback relative to thevirgin sample position and/or optical backscattering properties. Forexample, feedback to control modification relative to the top of thesample can be done on the fly. In addition, virgin opticalbackscattering properties can be used to adjust image processingparameters and/or feedback control algorithms to enable robust feedbackfor inhomogeneous materials.

In the inline coherent imaging optical unit, feedback for practicalmachining processes is significantly enabled by the use of a commonfocal objective to deliver both imaging and machining light to thesample. This makes integration with existing machining platforms andtechnology in the market significantly easier and less expensive than ifone were to try and deliver imaging and machining light to the sampleusing separate focal objectives, and in some embodiments, an additionaldichroic mirror between the sample and the objectives. In particular,delivery of process gas, damage to the dichroic mirror from processejecta and dispersion compensation are all hindered by the latterapproach Inline coherent imaging systems avoid this problem by using acommon focal objective to deliver both imaging and machining light tothe sample. In some embodiments, integration into existing systems isconsiderably aided by operating the imaging light source in the spectralregion between 400 and 950 nm as existing camera port hardware is oftencompatible with such wavelengths. Additionally, this spectral regionallows for faster and/or more sensitive silicon based detector hardwareto be used.

The image processor design and configuration in embodiments of inlinecoherent imaging differs from those taught in other applications of lowcoherence interferometry (such as optical coherence tomography). In ICIimaging systems, it is not suitable to buffer several thousand spectralacquisitions before processing as is commonly the practice in OCT. Insome embodiments, the ICI systems acquire spectra in sets of 1 to 100 toreduce feedback latency time. Specialized image processing algorithms,online interface detection and a feedback controller are required, aswell as appropriate algorithms to reduce the unprocessed imaginginformation to one or few output parameters by identifying selectedinterfaces in the sample that indicate process conditions such as depthof material removed, depth of material remaining, change in materialheight, change in material optical properties, change in materialthickness.

When processing opaque materials, the bottom of the machined feature canoften be positively identified by tracking algorithms as the firstsignal with intensity above a selected threshold as the algorithmtraverses from deepest depth to shallowest. In some cases, multiplyscattered photons will be collected by the imaging system in sufficientquantity as to falsely trigger this condition. Under thesecircumstances, the bottom of the hole may be positively identified bytracking algorithms as the first peak above a selected threshold as thealgorithm traverses from deepest depth to shallowest. In someembodiments, image processing algorithms may average the results of oneor more acquisitions to enhance the signal to noise ratio. A subsequentstep in processing ICI images for feedback is the application ofalgorithms to reduce the unprocessed imaging information to one or fewoutput parameters by identifying selected interfaces in the sample thatindicate process conditions such as depth of material removed, depth ofmaterial remaining, change in material height, change in materialoptical properties, change in material thickness. Depending on thedesired feedback one or more of these measurements are transmitted to afeedback controller that may adjust process parameters based on thesemeasurements. In some embodiments, this algorithm usesproportional-integral-derivative feedback methods. One or more than oneoutput parameters may be interfaced to the machining light source and/orother subsystems within the material modification platform.

The control parameters within the material modification platform thatare controlled may include, for example, but are not limited to sampleposition; material modification beam steering and/or focussing; materialmodification light source pulse duration, intensity, pulse energy, pulsefluence, and/or light frequency; gas assist pressure and/or gas type.

In some embodiments, the image processor may store the data present atone or more points in the processing chain for troubleshooting andquality assurance use.

The high reflectivity of some materials may cause the detector tosaturate, or elevate distant features of the system point spreadfunction (sometimes referred to as “shoulders”) above the noise floor.Either of these can reduce image quality and hinder automatic feedbackprocessing. Some embodiments of ICI detectors and/or image processorsare capable of detecting these adverse conditions and taking correctivemeasures on the fly. For example, detector saturation on theconstructively interfering fringes of the interferogram tends to clipthe top of the fringes which creates additional frequency componentpower that would be spread across multiple depths resulting in animaging artifact. In this example, some embodiments of ICI controllersmay detect that one or more pixels on the detector are at a saturatedlevel and switch to a different processing algorithm that is suited forsaturation. Even with the clipped spectrum, the majority of the signalpower is still delivered at the fundamental frequency and so, in someembodiments, a maximum seek procedure may be used to locate the depth ofthe bright reflector. Some embodiments of the invention may dynamicallyor statically adjust the detector gain, adjust detector sensitivity,adjust detector integration time, modulate the reference arm power,and/or modulate the illumination intensity as other methods of managingsaturation. In cases where the detector has not saturated, but pointspread function shoulders have been substantially elevated above thenoise floor, some embodiments of the invention will employ digitaldynamic range compression to diminish the shoulder intensity to belowacceptable levels (usually below the noise floor).

In some embodiments, one or more of the outputs of the feedbackcontroller are interfaced to the inline coherent imaging unit or theimage processor unit, to allow on-the-fly adjustment of parameterswithin these units to achieve robust feedback control. Examples of suchparameters include but are not limited to, reference arm power,reference arm length, image beam polarization, reference or sampleobstruction (i.e., beam blocking), image acquisition time (integrationtime and number of images to average), detector gain and/or dynamicrange.

More advanced feedback techniques that may be employed in someembodiments include:

Select a window of ˜10 depths around the primary machining front andtrack the front within those depths.

Select another window of ˜10 depths some distance (this depends on howmuch advanced notice of breakthrough is desired) below the primarymachining front depth and search for interface signals within thatdepth.

When subsurface interface is found, check signature against knownfeatures to ensure that it is the target interface of choice.

Report margin depth to feedback controller.

Feedback controller decides if process needs to be slowed or stopped andeffects such control on the process equipment.

Some embodiments feature one or more of the following:

Optics configured to place the imaging focus as close as possible totarget depth to maximize SNR. This may mean that the imaging andmachining foci are displaced axially from each other.

Optics configured to avoid side-wall reflections that might confuse theimage processing feedback system;

System timing to control when to fire the imaging system;

Streamlined image processing including the homodyne filter algorithm,processing reflection intensity from a reduced subset of sample depths.Additionally, this algorithm gives a higher quality point spreadfunction than standard techniques (see FIG. 20 );

using an FPGA or ASIC in the image processor in order to reduceprocessing latency, enabling an increase in processing speed;

Interface and/or signal trend tracking algorithms that may be run inreal time.

The terms “feedback” and “feedback control”, when used to describe thefunction of invention described herein, refer to automatic electronicand/or electro-optical feedback control, where the data generated by theICI imaging subsystem are further processed by a controller to provide acontrol signal to a material processing subsystem.

It is noted that any of the embodiments described herein may beimplemented with a common objective lens for the modification beam andthe imaging beam.

In all embodiments of the invention, a sample arm optical path and areference optical path are used. These paths may overlap and be sharedat various points throughout the invention. Optical path length in thisapplication refers to all space and matter traversed by the imaginglight that contribute to optical path delay, including physical pathlength as well as optical dispersion and other optical frequencydependent phase variation, optical media with varied phase and/or groupvelocities.

Coherent Imaging and Control of Additive Manufacturing

Background

Additive manufacturing (AM) (also known as 3D printing) offers theability to produce functional, geometrically-complex, parts of a widerange of materials with properties (e.g., geometrical, mechanical,optical, thermal, etc.) unachievable or infeasible via traditionalmanufacturing methods (e.g., casting, milling, molding, forming,forging, rolling, etc.). Additive manufacturing processes can produceobjects from materials including metals, plastics, organic materials,dielectrics, composite materials, and functionally-graded materials. Inmany additive manufacturing processes, three-dimensional objects areproduced through layer-wise part fabrication. In many of theseprocesses, the production of each layer involves the use of a localizedenergy source, such as a laser beam or electron beam, to modify the rawmaterial feedstock into its desired form, often by way of a solid stateprocess including, but not limited to, melting and evaporation (i.e., aphase change). The use of a controlled, localized energy source allowsthermal energy to be imparted to the processed material and materialchanges to be induced. Through control of the material phase andtemperature, properties (e.g., surface tension and wettability) of thematerial may be modified to allow the deposition of a new part layerwith certain desired properties. However, underlying complexitiesinherent to additive manufacturing processes make achieving thenecessary control of material deposition difficult in practice.

In AM processes, precise control of the energy source-materialinteraction is required to achieve sufficient material deposition andthe fabrication (or repair) of a complete part. In many AM systems,open-loop processing is performed based on a set of established processparameters. Such open-loop processing requires extensive process anddatabase development in order to determine suitable process parameterregimes. In addition to requiring a tremendous amount of resources, thisapproach limits development of new materials, part geometries, andprocess modifications. Furthermore, this approach limits the use ofadditively manufactured parts in functional assemblies, commercialproducts, and critical applications due to uncertainty in the propertiesof the fabricated part. Extensive process certification is required toensure sufficient part properties, negating advantages of additivemanufacturing processes, including: production ofhighly-specific/customized parts with low turnaround times; productionof geometrically complex parts; and savings through low-volumeproduction and the lack of additional tooling.

In metal-based additive manufacturing processes, the use of an intense,localized energy source to induce material phase changes and allowmaterial to be manipulated into desired geometries/forms, in combinationwith the layer-wise build nature inherent to additive processes, resultsin a range of complex, underlying physical phenomena whose interactionultimately dictates the properties (e.g., mechanical, microstructure,optical, etc.) of the manufactured part and may lead to build failure ifnot properly controlled. The interaction of these mechanisms during agiven AM process, and effect of these interactions on overall partproperties, are not fully understood. Furthermore, determination ofprocess parameters to balance these interactions and achieve processstability requires large efforts in process development. Processinstability is known to lead to a host of detrimental effects, which mayresult in part geometry and dimensional deviations; deterioration inmechanical, optical, and/or electrical part properties; and mayultimately result in build failures. Track fragmentation resulting fromcapillary instability (the breakup of deposited material from acontinuous structure), a processing defect widely known as “balling”,generally occurs as a result of insufficient wetting of the processedmaterial to its underlying/surrounding environment. Balling generallyarises as a result of insufficient energy density imparted by the energysource during the manufacturing process, and results in deterioration ofpart density and mechanical properties. Additive manufacturing processestypically rely on a priori process development and/or indirectmeasurement techniques to determine which process parameter regimesshould be avoided to minimize the effects of balling. The strongdependence of balling on build parameters and part geometry, however,limits the effectiveness of such a method.

Another common metal-based AM process defect arises during processingoverhang structures. Overhang structures generally refer to structuresbuilt on top of underlying layers of the process raw materials, such asmetal powders. Overhang structures may also be structures built inregions with no underlying support. Processing of overhang structuresoften results in significant changes in temperature, stability, size,and morphology in the region where the material processing beam sourceis modifying the material; can significantly affect process depositproperties; and are a common source of build error. Reliable methods todetect such failures are not well developed. In order to achieve moreconsistent results, process support structures/scaffolding areintegrated into the AM part design. The use of these structures, and thedifficulties associated with overhang processing, result in increasedbuild material consumption/waste, increased requirements for processdevelopment, the need for additional design considerations, and partdesign limitations.

Additive manufacturing build times are generally considered to be anobstacle to widespread adoption of these processes. The layer-wisenature of additive manufacturing processes results in layer processingtimes being significant bottlenecks to overall build times. However,increasing layer processing speed can often result in process defects ifprocess parameters are not balanced accordingly. Balancing processparameters over continuous changes in interaction environment, arisingas a result of the part geometry, proves difficult. Many AM processes donot have part failure identification systems capable of identifying partfailures as they happen, and stopping or modifying the processaccordingly. As a result, part failure is not identified until buildcompletion—effectively increasing the length of the build process. Theability to detect failures occurring early on in the process and stop,or modify, the process accordingly could enable significant reductionsin part production and process development times, and may lead to betterquality parts.

Existing additive manufacturing process monitoring systems implement acombination of NIR thermal CMOS cameras, pyrometers, photodiodes, andhigh-speed cameras to assess metrics such as thermal stability, PCRextent, and light intensity. These systems are unable to measureadditive manufacturing process morphology and other interferometry-basedprocess metrics.

EMBODIMENTS

Additive manufacturing is a material modification process that may bedefined as “the process of joining materials to make objects from 3Dmodel data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractivemanufacturing technologies” (ASTM F2792). Here this definition includesthe joining of materials to add onto existing objects for purposesincluding additions, modifications, repairs, etc.

In additive manufacturing, the energy source-material interaction zoneis often characterized by the presence of a molten pool (i.e., the “meltpool”) on the surface of the work piece. In this disclosure, the term“phase change region” (PCR) is used to more generally refer to theregion where the energy source (i.e., material processing beam) modifiesor interacts with the material. The term “beam interaction zone” is alsoused to refer to this region. Modification of the material may bereferred to generally as a sintering (i.e., melting) process.Modification of the material may also be referred to generally as awelding process. The modification process in general may include somecombination of full melting, partial melting, and liquid-phase sinteringmechanisms. In the field of additive manufacturing, sintering is ageneric term that includes processes based on melting, partial melting,and/or liquid-phase sintering physical mechanisms. For the purpose ofthis disclosure, the term sintering is used as a general term todescribe processes that include melting, partial melting, and/orliquid-phase sintering physical mechanisms. Depending on the material,up to 100% density can be achieved with material properties comparableto those from conventional manufacturing methods. The process mayinvolve any form of laser sintering, which may be referred to asselective laser sintering, selective laser melting, direct metal lasersintering, or electron beam melting. Powder bed 3D printing, powder bedfusion, and powder fed processes are non-limiting examples. According toASTM F42 standard, powder fed processes fall under the category ofdirected energy deposition processes, and are commonly referred to aslaser metal deposition, direct metal deposition, or laser cladding.

Some embodiments provide hybrid processes, for example, processes thatcombine additive manufacturing and subtractive manufacturing.Subtractive manufacturing processes include the removal of material,such as in turning, drilling, boring, reaming, milling, and the like.The features described herein that include quality assurance and/orfeedback control may be applied to such hybrid processes. In suchprocesses, quality assurance and/or feedback control may also includequality assurance and/or control of the subtractive manufacturingoperations; coordination and timing between the additive and subtractiveoperations; and quality assurance and/or control of the additivemanufacturing operations, which may include the same control featuresand parameters described herein for additive manufacturing.

An additive manufacturing system may include, but is not limited to, acombination of: at least one material processing beam source; a beamdelivery system; material handling equipment; feedstock/raw material(i.e., additive material) feed source; and process control/monitoringsystem. The material processing beam source may include, but is notlimited to, a laser beam and/or an electron beam. The beam deliverysystem may include delivery optics, and/or electromagnetic field controlsystems. The beam delivery system may further include an opticalscanning unit, including, but not limited to, a galvanometer, polygonscanner, MEM (microelectromechanical system), and/or a piezoelectricdevice.

In some embodiments, the apparatus includes electrically-modifiableoptical material, used to alter the refractive index along some part ofthe interferometer's optical path to allow rapid changes (includingcontinuous or discrete changes) to the coherent imaging depth of field.

In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a beam scanning device inthe reference arm of the coherent imaging system in order to compensateand/or accommodate changes in sample arm optical path length. In someembodiments, changes in sample arm path length result from the AMprocessing beam deployment.

A block diagram according to a generalized embodiment is shown in FIG.29 . Referring to FIG. 29 , the apparatus includes a coherent imagingsystem (CIS) 2 integrated with an additive manufacturing system 1. Theadditive manufacturing system additively manufactures (or repairs ormodifies) a three-dimensional part with coherent imaging processing 3and monitoring and/or feedback control 5; and performs in situassessment of final part properties and overall quality 4 based oncoherent imaging interferometry data. Monitoring and quality assuranceinformation may be saved 6 for later use.

Coherent imaging measurement techniques, including inline coherentimaging (ICI), optical coherence tomography (OCT), and low coherenceinterferometry (LCI) are broad-band interferometry techniques used tomeasure changes in optical path length, and by extension changes insample morphology. As described herein, coherent imaging measurementtechniques such as inline coherent imaging may be used to measure/assessmorphology changes of materials during laser processing applicationssuch as additive manufacturing. Morphology and other interferometryoutput data obtained by such measurements may then be used to controlaspects of the process.

A coherent imaging system may include, but is not limited to, acombination of: a (broadband) light source; an interferometer comprisingat least one “sample arm” (an interferometer arm terminated by a sampleor otherwise having an unknown optical path length) and at least one“reference arm” (an interferometer arm having a well-defined opticalpath length and/or a well-known termination point); a spectrometer, suchas, but not limited to an optical grating; and a detector, including,but not limited to, a photodiode and/or a linescan camera, and/or acharge-coupled device (CCD). Generally, coherent imaging systems furtherinclude signal processing, storage, and/or display hardware includingone or more of a central processing unit (CPU), graphics processing unit(GPU), analog to digital converter (ADC), digitizer, digital acquisitiondevice (DAQ), and field-programmable gate array (FPGA).

In one embodiment, the detector and/or signal processor of the coherentimaging system is configured to discriminate between the interferometryoutput and incoherent emissions from the process that are received, forexample, by way of incoherent signal time dynamics, spectral shape, orsome combination thereof. The discriminated signals may then be routedthrough the signal processor and/or feedback controller and treated likethose from the auxiliary optical detectors described elsewhere herein.

A coherent imaging light source may include, but is not limited to, adiode, a superluminescent diode (SLD or SLED), or a swept source lightsource (e.g., VCSEL—vertical cavity surface-emitting laser). A coherentimaging light source may be broadband, as in the case of a SLD, and fallinto a range of spectral bands, including, but not limited to: <200 nm,200-400 nm, 400-700 nm (visible), 700-900 nm (NIR), 900-1100 nm (someforms of beam process light), 1100-2000 nm (IR) and/or >2000 nm (FarIR), or a combination thereof. Spectral bandwidths may include, <1 nm,1-10 nm, 10-50 nm, 50-100 nm, 100-1000 nm, >1000 nm, or a combinationthereof. A coherent imaging light source may be narrow-band, as in thecase of a VCSEL, and sweep over a certain spectral band. Light sourcewidths may be: <1 nm, 1-10 nm, >10 nm, or a combination thereof.Sweeping may be performed over spectral bands of: <200 nm, 200-400 nm,400-700 nm (visible), 700-900 nm (NIR), 900-1100 nm (some forms beamprocess light), 1100-2000 nm (IR) and/or >2000 nm (Far IR), or acombination thereof.

A coherent imaging system according to one embodiment is shown in FIG.30A. In this embodiment, the CIS 7 includes an imaging light source(SLD), isolator, beam splitter, and optical elements that deliver theimaging light to a reference arm and a sample arm 13. A detector may beimplemented with a spectrometer.

FIGS. 30B and 30C show two examples of an additive manufacturingapparatus. According to these embodiments, the system includes, but isnot limited to, at least one material processing beam source 8; amaterial processing beam delivery system 9A, 9B, additive manufacturingfeedstock and/or raw material handling and feeder systems 10A, 10B, atleast one coherent imaging system 7 such as, but not limited to thatshown in FIG. 30A, an optical scanner or other beam control device(e.g., polygon scanner, galvanometer, and/or piezoelectric device) 43A,43B that receives the sample arm 13 imaging light from the CIS andperforms coherent imaging beam interrogation location and timing, aprocess control system 11, and/or a quality control system 41. Alsoshown is the processing beam-material interaction zone 42A, 42B.According to the embodiments, coherent imaging measurement beaminterrogation of the processing beam-material interaction zone 42A and42B, and its surrounding area 26, may be performed before, during,and/or after material processing, in order to perform measurements,assessments, and/or QA and/or feedback decisions regarding the additivemanufacturing process, based on the interferometry output.

In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 31 , the apparatusincludes multiple reference arm paths 12A, 12B of different lengths inthe coherent imaging system to compensate and/or accommodate changes insample arm optical path length. Changes in sample arm path length mayresult from the AM processing beam deployment.

The embodiment of FIG. 31 also shows a coherent imaging system withmultiple sample arm paths 13A and 13B. Some embodiments may use themultiple sample arm paths to interrogate different areas of the buildplane/surface/volume. The apparatus may use the multiple sample armpaths to interrogate the same area of the build plane/surface/volume butfrom different angles of incidence. In some embodiments, measurementsare performed simultaneously.

In some embodiments, the apparatus includes multiple coherent imagingsystems setup such that the individual sample arm imaging beamsinterrogate different aspects of the additive manufacturing system'sbuild volume/area. Individual sample arm beams may interrogate differentareas and/or volumes. Individual sample arm beams may interrogate thesame area/volume but at different angles of incidence.

In the embodiment of FIG. 32 , the apparatus includes a coherent imagingsystem beam sample arm beam deployment component/assembly 14A, 14B thatallows the coherent imaging beam angle of incidence 15A, 15B relative toa part surface 16A, 16B (or some other additive manufacturing coordinatesystem/frame of reference) to be controlled/adjustedautomatically/manually. That is, some embodiments may be implemented sothat the assembly changes from 14A to 14B to adjust the beam incidentangle 15A to 15B to adapt to changes in the sample (16A to 16B). Theapparatus may further include optical and/or mechanical and/orelectrical components which allow the imaging beam angle of incidence toremain at (a) specific angle(s) (e.g., perpendicular) relative to theadditive manufacturing processing beam-sample interaction plane. Theapparatus may allow the imaging beam angle of incidence, relative to thepreviously defined plane, to be defined based on an input or controlsignal.

In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a coherent imaging systemwith a ring-shaped sample arm illumination beam profile. The beamprofile may be used to interrogate the sample/part/surface fromdifferent angles of incidence simultaneously. The beam profile may beused to interrogate the sample/part/surface at different spatial regionssimultaneously.

In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 33 , the apparatusincludes a fixed-distance coherent imaging probe beam reference 227.This reference may be used as a re-calibration standard to establish anabsolute height/depth coordinate system. This reference may also be usedto overcome temporal stability issues associated with coherent imagingimplementations. The fixed-distance reference may be implemented by afixed-distance optical path attached to the coherent imaging beam 217deployment head 228. The coherent imaging beam may be deployed throughthe same head as the processing beam 218. In some embodiments, thisreference is established through a fixed reference point within theadditive manufacturing system build environment 228, or is establishedbased on a reference location on a part undergoing manufacture.

In some embodiments, the apparatus includes an optical setup whichrealizes one or more processing beam deployments, each having its ownassociated coherent imaging system sample arm beam. In some embodiments,individual processing beam motion paths are decoupled from each other.In some embodiments, individual processing beam motion paths are coupledto each other (or some others). In some embodiments, the coherentimaging system sample arm beam is de-coupled from the processing beammotion. In some embodiments, the coherent imaging system sample arm beamis coupled to the processing beam motion.

In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a polarization controller tocontrol/dictate the polarization of the coherent imaging system samplearm. The apparatus may further include components in the spectrometer toprocess different sample arm optical polarizations.

In some embodiments, the apparatus is further used for the purpose ofmeasurement, monitoring, and/or control of the raw material/feedstocksupply mechanism. For example, in the embodiment of FIG. 33 , theapparatus includes a coherent imaging system setup in such a way as toallow the measurement beam 217 to image the raw material/feedstock 219supply mechanism directly, indicated at 222.

In the embodiment of FIG. 34 , the apparatus includes additional orauxiliary optical sensors 837, such as photodiodes, and optionallyassociated biasing, pre-amplification, amplification and dataacquisition techniques/systems (that are known to those skilled in theart). Such auxiliary optical sensors (also referred to herein asauxiliary optical detectors) collect light in a plurality of wavelengthbands that measure optical emissions from the process not directlycaused by the coherent imaging system 836 such as blackbody radiationfrom the material being processed, back-reflected light from thematerial processing beam (generated by the processing beam source 830)and any other intrinsic optical emissions from the process 829. Suchoptical auxiliary sensors may be configured by way of their compositionor optical filtering to collect specific bands of light such as 200-400nm (UV), 400-700 nm (visible), 700-900 nm (NIR), 900-1100 nm (processlight), 1100-2000 nm (IR) and/or >2000 nm (Far IR). The sensors may alsoinclude one to measure the output of the material processing beam sourceor some physical proxy thereof such as a partial reflection from anoptic in the beam delivery path. The optical signals collected by thesesensors may then be processed by a signal processor 838, recorded 839,compared against other signals for quality assurance and greater processknowledge, and/or connected to a feedback processor 840 and used asfeedback mechanisms to control the material modification process. Theauxiliary optical sensor signals may also be connected to a recordgenerator that receives at least one optical emission from the PCR togenerate at least one of a record, an annunciation, or a feedback outputto control the material modification process.

In some embodiments, the apparatus includes coherent imaging beamdeployment coaxial with the material processing beam. In someembodiments, the apparatus includes coherent imaging beam deploymentwhose alignment is relative to the material processing beam, but is notnecessarily coaxially aligned. In some embodiments, the apparatusincludes a coherent imaging beam deployment whose alignment is relativeto the AM process material feeding mechanism. In some embodiments, suchas in the case of powder fed AM processes, such alignment could berealized in the form of coaxial alignment to the powder stream. In someembodiments, such as in the case of powder bed AM processes, suchalignment could be realized in the form of alignment parallel to themotion path of the powder bed recoating mechanism.

Intrinsic process emissions can provide valuable data about a variety oflaser processes in general. However, the simultaneous combination ofsuch measurements with coherent imaging as described herein can yieldsubstantial benefits. Therefore, in certain embodiments, e.g., FIG. 34 ,intrinsic emission signals are collected, analyzed and/or used togetherwith coherent imaging signals.

In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 34 , the additionaloptical sensors may be coupled to the optical system by way of opticalfiber(s) 832. As shown in the expanded cross-section, such optical fibermay include a cladding 832 a situated about a multimode core 832 bfurther situated about a smaller core 832 c combined with a mode coupler835 that separates at 834 the single-mode and multimode channels (such aconfiguration may be referred to as a double-clad fiber). An example ofsuch a coupler is the DCFC1 manufactured by Castor Optics (Montreal, QC,Canada). Such a configuration allows a coherent imaging system tooperate efficiently through the smaller core with little to no modaldispersion simultaneously while collecting the intrinsic processemissions (mentioned above) efficiently into the multimode core.

In some embodiments, a multi-core fiber is used to deliver and/orcollect a plurality of coherent imaging and incoherent (i.e., intrinsicemission) imaging channels to the optical system. Such cores may beconcentric, co-linear, arranged in grids, and may be of different sizes.

In a further embodiment, the lens that couples the optical signals intothe fiber structure mentioned above is anti-reflection coated and/ordesigned achromatically for one or more of the wavelength bands that iscollected.

In some embodiments of FIG. 34 , the coherent imaging light is deliveredto the material by way of movable mirror(s) or other scanning system831. In embodiments that also feature the auxiliary optical sensors(e.g., 837 in FIG. 34 ), the auxiliary sensors, too, may be coupledthrough the scanning system and allow the intrinsic emissions theycollect to be spatially resolved. In this way, many new aspects of theprocess may be revealed, measured, tracked, interrogated (for qualityassurance and process development purposes), and/or used as means forclosed-loop feedback control. For example, observing the intensity ofthe infrared emissions at one or more locations to the rear of the PCRrelative to the penetration depth measured by the coherent imagingsystem could yield a better measurement of the cooling rate of thematerial than just an infrared measurement on its own. In anotherexample, the coherent imaging system is used to measure aspects of thegeometry of the PCR that are used to more accurately characterize and/orinterpret the signals received by the additional optical sensorsdescribed herein. Such multi-point, multi-wavelength measurements may beserialized or parallelized in small steps in time on the order of 10 us,100 us, 1 ms, 10 ms, 100 ms, or 1 s, and timescales in between asdictated by thermal and chemical time constants of the materialsinvolved.

In embodiments such as that shown in FIG. 34 , auxiliary opticaldetector measurements are used in conjunction with coherent measurementsto detect process features and/or defects undetectable by eitherdetection method on its own. Auxiliary optical detector measurements mayalso be used in conjunction with coherent measurements to detect processdefects such as lack of fusion and “false friends”, i.e., processingdefects in material joining applications, such as welding (including butnot limited to laser welding, electron beam welding, etc.), whereininsufficient fusion between the materials being joined results in a poorquality joint with no visible deficiency indicators on the workpieceexternal surface. Auxiliary optical detector measurements may includemeasurements of thermal signals emitted as a result of the materialmodification process. The thermal signals may be emitted from the phasechange region, or from a region trailing the phase change region, orboth.

In some embodiments, an auxiliary optical sensor may be a spectrometerthat is coupled to the optical systems mentioned herein. Such aspectrometer may also be connected to a signal processor, recordgenerator, and/or feedback processor as demanded by the application.

In an embodiment such as that of FIG. 34 , the auxiliary optical sensors837 may include one or more of a thermal camera, high speed visiblecamera, bolometer, pyrometer, and/or 1D or 2D array, or a combinationthereof.

A combination of intrinsic emission sensors and a coherent imagingsystem may also be used with a welding process. The welding process maybe performed as part of an additive manufacturing process. The weldingprocess may be performed outside of an additive manufacturing context.

In some embodiments, a combination of auxiliary optical detectormeasurements and coherent imaging measurements is used to detectmaterial processing defects. In various embodiments, material processingmay be an additive process or a welding process (which may or may not bepart of a larger overall process). Multiple coherent imaging beams maybe employed. Multiple auxiliary detectors (each with respectiveacceptance cones and/or spectral bands of sensitivity) may be employed.FIGS. 48A and FIG. 48B illustrate different embodiments. Materialprocessing defects may arise in the beam-material interaction zone 792phase change region and/or surrounding region. An auxiliary detectoracceptance cone 750 and the coherent imaging beam 751 are positioned atspecific offset distances (793 and 794 respectively) from the processingbeam 749. The offset distances may be fixed, or they may vary. Forexample, they may vary according to motion paths programmed by a userthrough a graphical user interface, script interface, and/or applicationprogram interface (API). In some embodiments, a motion path may beimported from another source such as computer aided drawing (CAD)software, computer aided manufacturing (CAM) software, or a combinationof these with user programming as above. In some embodiments, the motionpath may be automatically calculated and/or updated on-the-fly (e.g.,before, during and/or after the process) through industrial businterfaces (e.g., DeviceNet, ProfiNET, ProfiBUS, Ethernet IP, EtherCAT,general serial communication, TCP/IP, etc.) and/or analog inputs from aprocess controller and/or remote processing head controller. In someembodiments, the beam positions are adjusted based on recentmeasurements of the process itself. For example, a disturbance ofmaterial dynamics detected by the coherent measurement system may demanda confirmatory measurement by the auxiliary detectors or vice-versa. Insome embodiments, the offset distances equal zero (i.e., the auxiliarydetector acceptance cone, the coherent imaging beam, and the materialprocessing beam are coaxially aligned). In some embodiments, theauxiliary detector acceptance cone and the coherent imaging beam offsetsare equal (i.e., the auxiliary detector acceptance cone and the coherentimaging beam are coaxially aligned). In some embodiments, the auxiliarydetector acceptance cone and/or coherent imaging beam are positioned tomeasure at least one process region of interest. Process regions ofinterest may include one or more of, but are not limited to: the phasechange region, the region ahead of the phase change region, the regionbehind the phase change region, and the region adjacent to the phasechange region. In some embodiments, the auxiliary detector acceptancecone and the coherent imaging beam are positioned to measure the sameprocess region of interest. In some embodiments, the auxiliary detectoracceptance cone and the coherent imaging beam are positioned to measuredifferent process regions of interest. In some embodiments, the processincludes joining two materials in the “vertical direction”. In such aconfiguration, the processing beam path is such that it first encountersthe top material 798, then the joint between the materials 799, then thebase material 800 (See FIG. 48A). In some embodiments, the processincludes joining two materials in the “horizontal direction”. In such aconfiguration, the processing beam path is such that it encounters bothmaterials directly, and the joint exists between the materials and isexposed to the process beam (an example of such a configuration is abutt-joint).

In FIG. 48A and FIG. 48B it is understood that displacement of theauxiliary optical detector acceptance cone and the coherent imaging beamare shown in two dimensions (2D), and that three dimensional (3D)configurations are also possible.

In embodiments such as those shown in FIG. 48A and FIG. 48B, detecteddefects may include lack of fusion defects 797. Lack of fusion defectsmay have associated witness marks 796 on the physical material surface.In some embodiments, lack of fusion defects may not have any associatedwitness marks or external lack of fusion indicators on the materialsurface. Such a defect is commonly referred to as “false friend” (knownin German as “falsch Freunde”) defects 795. Lack of fusion may resultfrom insufficient processing beam energy to melt the bottom material(e.g., leaving unprocessed or virgin material 802). Lack of fusion mayresult even when there is sufficient processing beam energy tomelt/process both/all materials 801, but physical distortions(non-limiting examples include poor fixturing and/or material warping)prevent sufficient contact and/or fusion in the joint (e.g., produce agap) 803. Lack of fusion or false friend defects may result when thebase material is fully processed. Lack of fusion or false friend defectsmay result when the base material is partially processed. Lack of fusionor false friend defects may result when the base material is notprocessed.

In some embodiments, such as those shown in FIG. 48A and FIG. 48B, anauxiliary detector measures temperature, e.g., by way of processradiation such as black body radiation. As used herein, the terms “blackbody radiation”, “grey body radiation”, and variants thereof are allconsidered to be interchangeable and non-limiting examples of processradiation. The auxiliary detector measures black body radiation or otherprocess radiation. In some embodiments, the auxiliary detector measuressome combination of black body/process radiation and temperature.Temperature changes may be used to detect lack of fusion and/or falsefriends. Process radiation (e.g., black body radiation) may be used todetect lack of fusion and/or false friends. Temperature changes and/orchanges in process radiation from the material surface 804 may be usedto detect lack of fusion and/or false friends. Temperature changes mayinclude an increase in temperature. Temperature changes may include adecrease in temperature. Changes in process radiation may include anincrease in process radiation. Changes in process radiation may includea decrease in process radiation.

In some embodiments, a numerical aperture (NA) of the auxiliary detectoracceptance cone and/or the coherent imaging beam may be adjusted by useof telescope (including, e.g., Keplerian, Galilean, and anti-aberrativeimprovements thereon) or other refractive/reflective optics known tothose skilled in the art, to control energy delivery/collection and tocompensate for angled reflections/emissions off/from the materialsurface.

In some embodiments, including, but not limited to a remotely-scannedmaterial processing beam, the NA and/or focus of the coherent imagingbeam and/or auxiliary detector acceptance cone may be actively adjustedin real-time to compensate for optical non-idealities in the beamdelivery system and/or changes in the process. Such compensation may becalculated/determined by previous measurements of the process inquestion or similar previously conducted processes.

In some embodiments, such as those shown in FIG. 48A and FIG. 48B, acombination of auxiliary detector measurements and coherent imagingmeasurements is used for quality assurance purposes (including, but notlimited to, providing a quality indicator for the process). Such acombination of measurements may be used for process control purposesand/or process development purposes. Combined auxiliary detector andcoherent imaging measurements may be made before (temporally and/orspatially) the process, during the process, and/or after (temporallyand/or spatially) the process. In some embodiments, auxiliary detectormeasurements may be calculated/determined by previous measurements ofthe process in question or similar previously conducted processes.

In some embodiments, “combination” may further describe how auxiliarydetector measurements and coherent imaging measurements are used inconjunction with, and/or synchronized with, each other. Auxiliarydetector measurements may be used to gate (temporally and/or spatially)coherent imaging measurements, or vice versa. Auxiliary detectormeasurements may be used to weight (e.g., make more significant) certaincoherent imaging measurements, or vice versa. Auxiliary detectormeasurements may be used to initiate coherent imaging measurements, orvice versa. Auxiliary detector measurements and coherent imagingmeasurements may alternate in some regular or irregular pattern. In someembodiments, auxiliary detector measurements and coherent imagingmeasurements may be performed simultaneously.

In some embodiments, the beam delivery system uses a five-axis opticalscanner that allows the angle of the material processing beam and/or thecoherent imaging beam to be changed relative to the material beingworked upon. An example of such a scanner is the precSYS™ delivery optic(SCANLAB GmbH, Munich, Germany) that is primarily used formicromachining. The angle of the material processing beam may be, forinstance, leading the process (as if to pull the PCR by a leash), orfollowing the process. The scanner may also be used to control the angleof the processing and/or imaging beam for purposes of adapting tochanges in the PCR material surface (see, e.g., FIG. 32 ). In someembodiments, such control is used to ensure (a) specific angle(s)relative to the PCR surface. Such control may be used to achieveadaptive beam angles relative to the PCR surface.

In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 35 , layer-wise coherentimaging measurements may be performed. For example, 35A, 35B, 35C, and35D correspond to measurements at different layers. The interferometryoutput may generate a three-dimensional physical part rendering 35E.This information may be used to determine physical part dimensions, makeassessments of part tolerance, determine part density, detect thepresence of voids/porosity, and/or make other determinations about thebuild process or part itself.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used to employcorrective actions during the process based on detected morphologydeviations from the part design. Corrective actions may be performed inthe form of material ablation, the supply of additional feedstock,changes in the additive manufacturing equipment motion control path,and/or other forms of material processing. Other forms of materialprocessing may include, but are not limited to, remelting.

In some embodiments, interferometry output from coherent imaging systemsis used to distinguish/resolve different material types involved in theadditive manufacturing process. In some embodiments distinguishingbetween materials such as metals, plastics, organics, semiconductors,polymers, and dielectrics is performed. In some embodiments,distinguishing among different metals, plastics, organics,semiconductors, polymers, or dielectrics is performed. In someembodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used to distinguishmaterials involved in the additive manufacture of multi-material parts,such as composite and/or functionally graded parts. Such information maybe used to control/alter the supply of the feed material, or to measureand/or assess the composition of newly deposited materials.

In some embodiments, the interferometry output is used todistinguish/resolve different material phases of the materialmodification process, such as changes in interferometry output as afunction of coherent imaging beam interrogation position (e.g., as shownin FIGS. 36B, 36C, 36D, 36E, for the process shown in FIG. 36A). Thisinformation may be used to distinguish different process phasesincluding: feedstock vs deposited material; liquid vs solid vs gaseousphases; bulk solid vs powdered/particulate solids. For example, FIG. 36Eshows that temporal changes in interferometry output are used todifferentiate liquid from solid phases (see arrow), and/or differentiatematerial feedstock from processed (deposited) material, as shown in theplots of FIG. 37 . In some embodiments, this information is used forquality assurance purposes, and/or for feedback/control purposes.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging resolved material phaseinformation is used to determine properties (including onset, duration,stability, etc.) of material phase transformations during the additivemanufacturing process. This information may be used to determine thermalcycles of the process and/or discern mechanical and/or microstructuralproperties of the manufactured part. In some embodiments, thisinformation is then used for QA. Material phase information may be usedin feedback/control applications to control thermal cycles duringadditive manufacturing for purposes including, but not limited to,dictating mechanical part properties and/or microstructure.

In some embodiments, material transparency (and/or semi-transparency) inthe spectral band of the coherent imaging system is exploited to monitorlayer-to-layer (inter-layer) bonding and/or sub-layer features duringthe additive manufacturing process.

In some embodiments, interferometry output is used to measure/quantifymaterial ejection during processing. Such information may be used toassess process parameter space quality and/or stability. In someembodiments, this information is used for feedback/control purposes. Insome embodiments, material ejection quantity, frequency, periodicity,regularity, speed, momentum, and/or force are determined based on theinterferometry output.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used to align apart (to be constructed or repaired), and/or the build platform, and/orfixturing relative to some defined coordinate system during the additivemanufacturing process. For example, in the embodiment of FIG. 47 ,alignment 91 is performed relative to the processing beam frame ofreference 90. In other embodiments, alignment may be performed relativeto a motion-control driven coordinate system.

In some embodiments, optical path length measurements from previouslayers of the additive manufacturing process are used to establish anoptical path length (and/or measured height and/or measured depth and/ordistance) reference. This reference may be used to overcome temporalstability issues associated with coherent imaging optical path lengthand/or height and/or depth and/or distance. For example, coherentimaging optical path length measurements of a static interface may varyover time due to environmental effects including temperature changes,physical vibrations, etc. As shown in FIGS. 38A and 38B, these effectsmay result in variations in heights/depths 57 a, 57 b and backscatteredintensities 59 a, 59 b measured by the coherent imaging system. The useof a previous layer reference may overcome or minimize the effect oftemporal stability on measurement accuracy/precision. This may beespecially important in additive manufacturing processes which occurover timescales of minutes, hours, or days.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging interferometry output is used todetect/identify multiple scattering events occurring during a coherentimaging measurement. For example, FIG. 39 shows different multiplescattering events 60B, 60C compared to a non-multiple scattering, ordirect, measurement 60A. This information may be used as a qualityassurance metric/rejection parameter for the coherent imagingmeasurement. Multiple scattering information may be used as a feedbackcontrol parameter for a coherent imaging measurement implementation. Insome embodiments, multiple scattering information is used as a qualityassurance metric/rejection parameter for an additive manufacturingprocess. Multiple scattering information may be used as a feedbackcontrol parameter for an additive manufacturing process. For the purposeof this disclosure, multiple scattering includes optical path lengthchanges (including extension) induced by additional reflections and/ormaterial changes in the sample arm of the interferometer. Interferogramphase changes may be used to detect/identify multiple scattering. Insome embodiments, changes in optical polarization are used todetect/identify multiple scattering.

In some embodiments, multiple scattering detection is used as a qualitymetric and/or feedback control parameter of an additive manufacturingprocess.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging feedback provided to an additivemanufacturing process is used to reduce overall manufacturing and/orrepair time.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging interferometry output is used toassess additive manufacturing process parameter quality. Processparameter quality may include one or more of beam energy/power, beamscanning speed, beam spot size, beam deployment method, materialpre-heating or cooling through addition energy sources (such as anadditional energy beam, heating coil, heat exchanger, etc.), additivematerial feed rate, additive material layer thickness, additive materialcomposition, additive material density, additive material feedinggeometry, beam scanning/processing geometry, the use of process supportstructures, the use of process fixturing, process environment oxygen (orother gas) concentration, process environment temperature, processenvironment pressure, re-processing strategy, post-processingstrategy/treatment, and processing pauses/breaks. Interferometry outputmay include morphology stability; relative/absolute morphology levels;the frequency of signal loss during coherent measurements; interferogramphase changes; interface broadening (i.e., increase in A-line width);generation/modification/changes to interface substructure (includingshoulders, sub-envelope peaks, broadening, narrowing); interfaceintensity changes; morphology changes; frequency shifts; relativefrequency measurements in spectrometer output; interface intensitylevels; the occurrence/appearance/disappearance of multiple interfacesand/or changes to their relative positions and/or intensities and/orsubstructure; above parameter changes as a function of time (includingtemporal derivatives and slopes); above parameter changes as a functionof space (including spatial derivatives and slopes); and above parameterchanges as a function of a combination of space and time. In oneembodiment, shown in FIGS. 40A-40F, which utilizes coherent imagingmeasurements of the melt pool to assess processing laser power, coherentimaging height and/or intensity measurements are used to identifyprocessing at insufficient laser processing power (FIG. 40A); processingat sufficient laser power (FIG. 40C); and processing at excessive laserpower (processing in a “keyholing” regime—generally considered to be adefective processing regime) (FIG. 40E). This embodiment further usescoherent imaging measurements of deposited tracks (after processing) toassess/identify/quantify the results of the additive manufacturingprocess. This may include surface roughness, discontinuities, features,irregularities, and/or other defects. This information may be used forprocess development purposes and/or process modification purposes. Inthe embodiment described above, the effects of processing in differentlaser power regimes is detected by coherent imaging measurements of theresulting tracks shown in (FIGS. 40B, 40D, and 40F).

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used forfeedback/control of the processing beam spot size and/or shape and/ortemporal profile during the additive manufacturing process. Feedbacksignals may be used to determine times/locations during the buildprocess where the beam spot size may be increased to achieve fasterbuild rates. Interferometry output may be used to ensure the processremains within its desired stability regime while build rate isincreased. In some embodiments, interferometry output is used todetermine spot size transition points according to whether the currentportion of the build requires high or low tolerances.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements of the additivemanufacturing processes powder bed (or some form of raw materialdeposited over the build area, including, e.g., a build platform and/orunderlying manufactured/repaired layer) are performed. In someembodiments, such measurements may include, but are not limited toheight/depth/length (FIG. 41A, upper panel) and/or backscatteredintensity (FIG. 41B, upper panel), and may be used to determine rawmaterial layer morphology, uniformity, thickness, density, areas lackingmaterial 70 (as shown in FIG. 41B, lower panel), areas of excessmaterial, layer defects 69 (as shown in FIG. 41A, lower panel), and/orlayer material phases. This information is used for AM quality assuranceand/or feedback/control purposes. Corrective actions including one ormore of the following may be performed: additional materialdeposition/supply; supplied/deposited material removal (through methodsincluding material ejection by low energy pulses; mechanical removalthrough a supplied gas stream; mechanical removal by direct physicalcontact; magnetic removal; etc.); changes to the density of thesupplied/deposited material; changes to the location of thesupplied/deposited material; changes to the material composition of thesupplied/deposited material; changes to the material deposition/supplyscheme; and changes to the material deposition/supply rate.

In some embodiments, morphology measurements of additive manufacturingprocess deposits are used for feedback/control purposes for applyingcorrective actions to the deposited material. Such actions may includeone or more of improvements/changes to part tolerances,improvements/changes to deposit composition, improvements/changes todeposit microstructure, improvements/changes to deposit mechanicalproperties (e.g., density). In some embodiments, corrective actionsinclude supplying additional material to the layer. In some embodiments,corrective actions include mechanical packing of the layer to increaseits packing density. In some embodiments, corrective actions includeadditional processing to achieve material re-melting. In someembodiments, corrective actions include material ablation/cutting as aresult of laser or electron beam processing. In some embodiments,corrective actions include material removal through traditionalmanufacturing methods (e.g., milling, drilling, cutting, etc.) and/orchemical methods (including etching). In some embodiments, correctiveactions include deposit polishing (through mechanical, chemical,laser-based, electron-beam based, and/or thermal mechanisms). In someembodiments, corrective actions include modifying the AM process toadd/modify/remove process support structures. In some embodiments,corrective actions include the injection/insertion/addition of newmaterials to act as chemical, mechanical, and or structuralstabilizers/enhancers (including the injection of filler material toincrease part density). In some embodiments, corrective actions includeimplementing treatments such as hot-isostatic pressing (HIP) at stagesduring and after the build process.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging morphology measurements are usedto identify potential AM process failures due to collisions of the AMprocess recoating mechanism (such as a wiper blade, recoater blade,roller) with features of the part being manufactured/repaired. Theidentification of such potential failures may be used to implementcorrective actions.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging morphology measurements are usedto identify potential AM process failures resulting from part featuresextruding into the material feedstock deposition plane or otherwiseinterfering with material feedstock supply. The identification of suchpotential failures may be used to implement corrective actions. Forexample, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 42 , coherent imaging systemmeasurements 75 are used to identify a part extrusion 71 into the powderbed 72 additive manufacturing system's recoater blade 73 plane 74.

In some embodiments, interferometry output is used to assesswetting/adhesion of the liquid phase (generally resulting from thelaser/electron beam) to underlying and/or adjacent solid structures ofthe part and/or underlying and/or adjacent solid structure of thefeedstock material. This information may be further used forcontrol/feedback processes involving the control of AM processparameters to alter wetting/adhesion.

In some embodiments, phase and/or spectroscopic measurements are used toassess the packing density of the supplied feedstock layer (includingthe powder bed during powder bed fusion processes). This information maybe used to provide corrective actions.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging morphology measurements are usedto align the recoating mechanisms (e.g., wiper blade, roller, materialjetting mechanisms, material extruder etc.) relative to the part underconstruction/repair, and/or the build platform, and/or another AM systemcoordinate system.

In some embodiments, morphology and/or density measurements of thepowder layer thickness are used to alter AM process parameters in areasof reduced layer thickness, increased layer thickness, reduced packingdensity, increased packing density, etc. This information may be used tocontrol the powder deposition mechanism and guide/control action toallow corrections to be performed within a specific region.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used to controlpowder bed gas shielding. Such control my include gas shielding flowrate or gas shielding flow geometry. Coherent imaging measurements maybe used to determine if process ejection is sufficiently handled (e.g.,if ejected materials are swept in such a way as they do not land back onthe powder bed and/or processed part), and if not, these measurementsmay be used to alter the shielding mechanisms as necessary.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging interferometry output is used tomonitor the PCR during processing of overhang structures. In an additivemanufacturing process, processing overhang structures (such asstructures with underlying layers consisting of raw powder instead ofdeposited bulk material) results in adverse process effects (includingPCR collapse, PCR swelling, changes to deposited materialstructure/morphology/microstructure etc.). Coherent imaging measurementsof the PCR and surrounding area during processing of overhang structuresmay be used to provide feedback to the AM process to alter processparameters, avoid detrimental effects, and/or reduce/change the need forAM process supports structures/scaffolding. For example, coherentimaging measurements (FIG. 43A) of the melt pool during laser processingin a powder bed additive manufacturing process are used to identify lossof melt pool stability (rapid changes in melt pool morphology) whenprocessing an overhang zone (e.g., about 6.5-13 mm in the figure).Coherent imaging measurements of the resulting track (FIG. 43C) and/or aphotograph of the track (FIG. 43B) are used to assess the quality of thedeposited material in the overhang zone (e.g., 6.5-13 mm).

In some embodiments, coherent imaging interferometry output is used toidentify a need for AM process support structures/scaffolding. Thisinformation may be used to inject additional support material as needed.In one embodiment, this information is used to remove support structuresduring processing as they are no longer needed. Such information mayalso be used to change/alter the material and/or shape of the supportstructures as needed.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging interferometry output may be usedto perform feedstock feedrate measurements in the form of materialstream velocity/speed, wire feed velocity/speed, and/or deposition rate(mass/time). For example, as shown in FIG. 33 , interferometry output isused to perform velocity/speed based measurements of additivemanufacturing process material feedstock 219. Doppler coherent imaging(including Doppler ICI and Doppler OCT) measurements of the materialstream may be used to realize such measurements. As shown in theexpanded view of FIG. 33 , the coherent imaging beam 217 is setup tointersect the powder/material stream, shown at 222 at such an angle 224that allows such measurements to be made. In some embodiments,speckle-variance coherent imaging techniques are used to realize suchmeasurements.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging-determined feedrate information isused to control the material feeder to alter federate or one or moreother AM process parameters (e.g., powder, scan speed, spot size, pulselength vs continuous mode, etc.).

In some embodiments, feedstock feedrate measurements of multiplematerial feedrates are used to determine material/alloy composition ofthe resulting AM deposit. In the case of multiple different materialfeeds, the ratio of the material feedrates (which dictates the ratio ofeach material's mass) directly determines the material type/alloy of theprocess deposit. Such measurements may be used to control differentmaterial feed rates to specifically control the materialcomposition/alloy of the AM deposit. Such feedback may be implemented inthe manufacture of composite materials, in the manufacture offunctionally graded materials (FGMs), or in the manufacture ofheterogeneous materials.

In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 33 , coherent imagingmeasurements of the feedstock (powder or wire) stream 219 are used todetermine the stream's precision, accuracy, and/or impact area (size,geometry, and/or location) on the part surface under manufacture/repair.In the embodiment shown in FIG. 33 , coherent imaging measurements madeby sweeping the measurement beam 226 through the process interactionzone 225 may be used to measure and/or assess the precision/accuracy ofthe powder stream impact region(s) shown by 21A and 21B (in someembodiments there may be multiple powder stream impact regions),relative to the processing beam interaction zone 220. This informationmay be used for additive manufacturing QA purposes, and/or to controlthe feedstock stream's spot size, its shape, and/or its impact locationrelative to the processing (laser/electron) beam/energy source. Coherentimaging measurement feedback may be used to improve accuracy andprecision of the feedstock stream.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements made during anadditive manufacturing process are used to determine and/or controlmotion control equipment motion paths of the additive manufacturingsystem. For example, coherent imaging measurements may be used tocontrol the motion path of the AM system processing beam. In someembodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used to performprocessing beam autofocusing.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are made duringpowder fed type additive manufacturing processes (also referred to asdirected energy deposition). In some embodiments, coherent imaging isused to perform measurements including size, morphology, reflectivity,polarization changes, phase changes, mass, wetting, adhesion, and/orsurface tension of the PCR, raw feedstock, and/or deposited material forpurposes including quality assurance and feedback control processes.Control processes may include modifying beam power, spot size, scanspeed, material feed rate, gas shielding, and/or motion path geometry.

In various embodiments, coherent imaging measurements may be used toperform additive manufacturing processes of parts located directlywithin their functional assemblies, to perform part repairs directlywithin their assemblies, or to perform additive manufacturing and/orrepair of parts within moving assemblies and/or in a moving referenceframe.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used to measureand/or assess the effect of the additive manufacturing processing beamtemporal profile on the beam-material interaction. Embodiments mayfurther comprise using this information for feedback/controlapplications and/or to validate processing regimes/parameter spaces. Insome embodiments, temporal profile refers to pulsed versus continuousmodes, and/or pulse period, and/or pulse duty cycle, and/or pulse shape.This information may be used to control heating and cooling (thermal)cycles during the additive manufacturing process.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used to measureand/or assess the effect of the additive manufacturing processing beamspatial profile on the beam-material interaction, and optionally usingthis information for feedback/control applications and/or to validateprocessing regimes/parameter spaces.

In some embodiments, polarization-sensitive coherent imaging is used tomeasure/assess the additive manufacturing process.Polarization-sensitive coherent imaging may be implemented in schemessimilar to polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography systems.Such systems are commonly employed in biomedical imaging applications.In some embodiments, the method further includes using this informationto resolve/detect multiple scattering events (see, e.g., FIG. 39 ) ofthe processing beam and/or the sample arm beam. Polarization sensitiveinformation may be used to resolve/detect material phase changes duringthe additive manufacturing process. Polarization sensitive informationmay be used to detect/resolve the presence of plasma and/or otheradditive manufacturing process emissions, or to detect/resolve materialproperty changes before/during/after additive manufacturing processing.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging morphology measurements are usedto provide feedback and/or quality assurance information to an additivemanufacturing process to allow manufacturing of structures not possiblewithout morphology information.

In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 44 , coherent imagingmorphology measurements are used to measure/determine the contact angle79 of liquid material 80 on underlying bulk solid material 81. Methodsmay further comprise using this information in feedback/controlmechanisms of an additive manufacturing process.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging interferometry output is used toprovide an indication (direct or indirect) of the processing beam power.In some embodiments, changes in optical path length induced by theprocessing beam propagation are used to make beam power measurements.

Re-use of AM powder material can reduce overall costs of additivemanufacturing, but can also add certain risks for inconsistentperformance, especially when feedstock re-processing techniques are notstrictly controlled. Therefore, in some embodiments of the invention,the coherent imaging system senses variations in feedstock layer height,feedstock packing, feedstock uniformity, feedstock density, and/or theoccurrence of feedstock clumps by coherent imaging morphologymeasurements of the feedstock prior to material processing, thusevaluating the quality of the powder being acted upon by the materialprocessing beam. Such evaluation may then be used by operators and/or afeedback processor to warn, stop and/or control/adjust the process.These evaluations may also be saved by a record generator for laterconsideration and/or to build up empirical models to inform futureprocesses and/or develop suitable process parameter spaces.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used todetect/assess material feedstock equipment wear either directly orindirectly. Some embodiments may further comprise using feedstockmaterial morphology measurements, taken prior to material process, toinfer damage to the material feedstock supply equipment. In powder bedadditive manufacturing processes, a layer of powder is deposited on topof the underlying part layers for the purposes of undergoing materialprocessing to achieve new layer deposits/structures. In powder bedprocesses, powder layers are deposited by mechanisms including, but notlimited to, recoater blades, wiper blades, and/or rollers. In someembodiments, irregularities in the deposited powder bed layer,including, but not limited to, streaks, voids, powder clumps, thepresence of processed material deposits/by-products, or a combinationthereof, are used to assess/measure deposit mechanism wear/damage.Coherent imaging morphology measurements taken directly of the materialfeedstock supply equipment may be used to assess/measure equipmentwear/damage.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging interferometry output signaturesare used to identify aspects of the additive manufacturing processregime. Some embodiments may further comprise using morphology (such asin the form of height information) to identify detrimental, poor, valid,and/or suitable AM processing regimes. PCR morphology measurements maybe used to classify it as falling within, above, or below targetmorphology levels/thresholds. This classification may involve theidentification of stable melt pools (PCRs), chaotic melt pools (in theform of fluctuating/oscillating morphology measurements) (e.g., FIG.40A), and/or keyholing process regimes (melt pool interface heightfalling below the underlying layer height) (e.g., FIG. 40E). In someembodiments, coherent imaging backscattered intensity measurements maybe used to identify the AM processing regimes described above inaddition to, or in place of, morphology measurements.

In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 45 , coherent imagingmeasurements of the region trailing 82 the melt pool/PCR/processing beam83 are used to assess/determine the quality/consistency of the AMdeposited material (referred to as the “track”) 85. Coherent imagingmeasurements of the region leading 84 the melt pool/PCR/processing beam83 may be used to determine/assess the quality/consistency of the AMprocess feedstock (which in some processes is in the form of the powderbed 86). Such information may be used for quality assurance purposes,for feedback/control purposes, and/or for process development purposes.In some embodiments, coherent measurements may imply morphology basedinformation, backscattered intensity information, phase information, ora combination thereof.

In some embodiments, temporal variations in coherent imagingmeasurements of the PCR are used to identify processing parameter regimequality. This information may be used for feedback/control purposes, forquality assurance purposes, and/or for process development purposes.Temporal variations may be used to identify PCR stability or PCR phasechanges.

Additive manufacturing of overhang zones are a challenge to manyadditive processes, and often require the use of scaffolding/supportstructures. Such support structures increase process materialconsumption and increase post-processing requirements, necessary toremove these structures. Processing of overhang features also increasesthe chance of build failures/defects. In some embodiments, coherentimaging measurements are used to identify regions where overhangprocessing is occurring, measure/assess process stability duringprocessing of these structures, and/or provide QA/feedback controlsignals. Morphology measurements of the underlying layer may allow theoverhang location to be better established and processed accordingly.Coherent imaging interferometry output may be used toidentify/characterize stable and unstable overhang processing regimes.This information may be used to control and/or develop the AM processfor the purposes of avoiding process failures associated with overhangprocessing and/or to process overhanging structures which grow at largerangles (relative to the underlying plane). In some embodiments, thisinformation may be used to reduce the need for material supportstructures/scaffolding.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are used to monitordenuded zones surrounding the PCR, as shown in FIG. 46 . During, but notlimited to, powder bed fusion processes, areas of the powder bedadjacent to and preceding the melt pool/PCR may lose powder (becomedenuded) as a result of powder absorption into the melt pool/PCR. FIG.46 shows denuded zones 88 surrounding the PCR 87 within the context ofthe overall powder bed 89. Coherent imaging measurements of the denudedzone may be used to monitoring/control the deposit growth process.Denudation measurements may be used to measure input mass to the AMprocess. Some embodiments may further include the use of morphologymeasurements to determine deposit/track volume. A combination of theinput material mass and track volume may be used to determine trackdensity and/or the presence of porosity. Some embodiments may furtherinclude using this information to determine AM process efficiency and/oroptimize process parameters and/or provide quality assuranceinformation/decisions. Denudation measurements may be used to determineregions starved of powder and/or regions of excess powder consumption.This information may be used to adjust process parameters (such asdeposit/track overlap and/or processing motion paths) accordingly. Insome embodiments, identification of regions starved of powder may resultin material processing being temporarily halted/delayed/altered asadditional feed material is deposited in its place.

In some embodiments, comparison of powder layer and processed layercoherent imaging interferometry output measurements may be used toassess layer properties including, but not limited to, layer density,layer microstructure, inter-layer adhesion, intra-layer adhesion,porosity, physical defects, deviations in tolerances, and/or layerwarping.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging system signal loss may be used toinfer stability and/or angle of the PCR surface. Additive processesinvolving molten material wetting to underlying/adjacent solidstructures (including, but not limited powder bed and powder fed AMprocesses) involve a melt pool. The angle of the melt pool's surfacerelative to the material processing beam source is dependent on avariety of parameters, including AM process parameters, materialproperties, and environmental properties. Coherent imaging signal loss,in an embodiment where the coherent imaging beam is aligned coaxially tothe material processing beam, may be used to determine melt pool surfaceangle relative to the material processing beam. Melt pool angleinformation may be used to provide QA metrics, or for feedback/controlpurposes to modify process parameters.

In some embodiments, temporal variation in the coherent imaging systeminterferometry output is used to establish the extent of the PCR. Someembodiments may further include the use of the PCR extent to set AMprocess parameters including, but not limited to, inter-line spacing,hatch distance, track overlap, material processing beam power, materialprocessing beam scanning speed, etc. PCR extent may be established basedon interferometer output intensity levels. Spatial variations(variations in the coherent imaging beam interrogation region) in thecoherent imaging system interferometry output may be used to establishthe extent of the PCR.

In some embodiments, coherent imaging measurements are performedconcurrently with measurements from additional monitoring techniquesbased on, but not limited to, one or more of: photodiodes, thermalsensors, pyrometers, cameras, bolometers, 1D or 2D arrays thereof.

In some embodiments, interface/depth/height tracking techniques areperformed on the coherent imaging system interferometry output to allowfurther QA metrics and/or control/feedback processes to be implemented.Interface tracking methods may be used to distinguish between interfacetypes (see, e.g., FIG. 37 ), including, but not limited to materialfeedstock, raw material, PCR, processed deposits/tracks, and AM processequipment. Different interface tracking methods may be used to implementmeasurements/metrics of different interface types including, but notlimited to material feedstock, raw material, PCR, processeddeposits/tracks, and AM process equipment. Interface tracking mayinclude one or more of brightest pixel location and intensity ofindividual coherent imaging A-lines, Gaussian fitting of individualA-lines, a form of weighted averaging of individual A-lines, andidentification of A-line peaks above certain thresholds, or withinspecific fields of view. Correlation algorithms may be used to furthersupplement interfacing tracking techniques for purposes including, butnot limited to, quality assurance, feedback/control, and/or processdevelopment.

Equivalents

Modifications and variations of the embodiments described herein arepossible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to beunderstood that within the scope of the appended claims, the disclosuremay be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein.

The invention claimed is:
 1. An apparatus, comprising: a material processing beam source that produces a material processing beam that is applied to a surface in an additive manufacturing process, the additive manufacturing process including at least one feedstock supply stream; an imaging system configured to produce at least one imaging beam, wherein the imaging system includes an optical interferometer that produces an interferometry output based on at least one sample optical path length compared to a reference optical path length, wherein the imaging system is configured to direct a component of the imaging beam on a sample arm path that intersects the feedstock supply stream and to direct a component of the imaging beam on at least one reference arm path; and a processor that receives the interferometry output from the imaging system and produces an output used as feedback to control at least one processing parameter of the additive manufacturing process.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the component of the imaging beam intersects the feedstock supply stream at an angle.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the output of the processor includes a feedstock supply stream velocity.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the at least one processing parameter of the additive manufacturing process that is controlled comprises at least one of: a powder feedstock supply stream feed rate, a powder feedstock supply stream deposition rate, a scan speed of the material processing beam, a spot size of the material processing beam, a pulse duration of the material processing beam, and a temporal profile of the material processing beam.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the additive manufacturing process includes a first powder feedstock supply stream of a first material and a second powder feedstock supply stream of a second material, and the output of the processor includes a ratio of the first powder feedstock supply stream feed rate to the second powder feedstock supply stream feed rate.
 6. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the at least one processing parameter of the additive manufacturing process that is controlled comprises at least one of a first powder feedstock supply stream feed rate and a second powder feedstock supply stream feed rate.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the material processing beam and the at least one feedstock supply stream interact on the surface in a material processing beam interaction zone, and the imaging system is further configured to sweep the imaging beam through a process interaction zone on the surface that includes the material processing beam interaction zone.
 8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the output of the processor includes one or more characteristics of a powder stream impact region on the surface.
 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the at least one processing parameter of the additive manufacturing process that is controlled comprises at least one of: a powder feedstock supply stream spot size, a powder feedstock supply stream shape, a location of the powder stream impact region, a geometry of the powder stream impact region, and a size of the powder stream impact region.
 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the output of the processor includes a height measurement.
 11. An additive manufacturing method that includes at least one feedstock supply stream, the method comprising: directing a material processing beam from a material processing beam source to a surface; generating an imaging beam from an imaging optical source; directing a component of the imaging beam on a sample arm path that intersects the feedstock supply stream; directing a component of the imaging beam on at least one reference arm path; using an optical interferometer to produce an interferometry output based on at least one sample optical path length compared to a reference optical path length; producing a feedback output based on the interferometry output; and controlling at least one processing parameter based on the feedback output.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the feedstock supply stream includes a powder feedstock supply stream.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein directing the component of the imaging beam includes directing the imaging beam such that it intersects the powder feedstock supply stream at an angle.
 14. The method of claim 12, wherein the feedback output includes a powder feedstock supply stream velocity.
 15. The method of claim 12, wherein the at least one processing parameter comprises at least one of: a powder feedstock supply stream feed rate, a powder feedstock supply stream deposition rate, a scan speed of the material processing beam, a spot size of the material processing beam, a pulse duration of the material processing beam, and a temporal profile of the material processing beam.
 16. The method of claim 12, wherein the material processing beam and the powder feedstock supply stream interact on the surface in a material processing beam interaction zone, and further comprising sweeping the imaging beam through a process interaction zone on the surface that includes the material processing beam interaction zone.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the feedback output includes one or more characteristics of a powder stream impact region on the surface.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the at least one processing parameter comprises at least one of: a powder feedstock supply stream spot size, a powder feedstock supply stream shape, a location of the powder stream impact region, a geometry of the powder stream impact region, and a size of the powder stream impact region.
 19. The method of claim 11, wherein the at least one feedstock supply stream includes a first powder feedstock supply stream of a first material and a second powder feedstock supply stream of a second material, and the feedback output includes a ratio of the first powder feedstock supply stream feed rate to the second powder feedstock supply stream feed rate.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the at least one processing parameter comprises at least one of a first powder feedstock supply stream feed rate and a second powder feedstock supply stream feed rate.
 21. The method of claim 11, wherein the feedback output includes a height measurement. 